andreeva_tia_nauchnyi_angliiskii_iazyk_vypusk_14_nauka

Text 30

Scientific Mind

The main qualities which go to make up a scientific mind are not peculiar attributes of the man of science; they may be recognized as belonging to men who have commanded or de­ served success in other departments of intellectual activities. Science as Huxley said, is organized common sense; and all men who have been drilled in the ways of common sense should, therefore, possess the characteristics of a truthful sci­ entific mind, as defined by one in whom it was clearly mani­ fest: "In the first place, above all things, his nature must be one which vibrates in unison with that of which he is in search; the seeker after truth must himself be truthful, truthful with the truthfulness of Nature..." (Foster).

Love of truth creates the habit of accuracy and exactness in matters of fact, which characterizes a scientific mind. Convic­ tion counts for nothing, and any knowledge arrived at as the re­ sult of observation or experiment must be capable of being verified by other investigators who will follow the same road. Scientific truth is thus objective and not subjective; it must be open to all eyes and not limited to the consciousness of one mind.

The only evidence of value in science and the only testi­ mony which a student of science is competent to give, is that derived from his own observations. Hearsay evidence is not admitted in a court of law or given any weight in a scientific discussion... A witness is expected to give a truthful account of the facts at a case as they presented themselves to him; and at the tribunal of science he dare not offer false testimony. His observations must be exact if they are to stand the test of crossexamination; his evidence must be impartial if it is to have any

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weight; and his loyalty should be to truth alone, as understood by him, if it is to influence the verdict.

But the scientist is a judge as well as a witness; his own in­ vestigations provide him with the evidence upon which he himself passes judgement; and when he is asked to accept con­ clusions or subscribe to convictions in support of which no facts are forthcoming he declines to derogate his reason.

When facts are not available it is equally permissible to believe or to doubt. Nothing is impossible; but in the court of natural knowledge nothing is acceptable without proof. The duty of science is to obtain trustworthy evidence from every available source, and to arrive at conclusions from it. But clear and complete testimony is difficult to obtain even of the events and occurrences of everyday life; and it can only be elicited from Nature by the mind that hesitates to believe and requires positive impressions in order to be convinced. The man of sci­ ence, by virtue of his training, is alone capable of realizing the difficulties - often enormous - of obtaining accurate data upon which judgement may be based.

♦ Agree or disagree with the following phrases and explain your motivation.

1.The main qualities which make up a scientific mind do not belong to men who have commanded success in other spheres of intellectual activities.

2.According to Huxley science is organised common

sense.

3.Scientific truth is subjective.

4.The scientist is a judge as well as a witness for his loy­ alty is truth alone.

5.When facts are not available nothing is possible.

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Text 31

The Development o f Scientific Research

Scientific research has become so important in the 20th century that it is no longer possible to describe any human so­ ciety, without according it its rightful place.

Scientific activity, with all its technical and economic con­ sequences, is at present passing through a period of particularly rapid development as compared with other human activities and may, broadly speaking, be said to be doubling in the course of each decade. This law of growth can be deduced from a fairly wide variety of statistical facts such as: the number of original publications appearing in the scientific journals and the number of abstracts published in a branch of science such as physics. It is also found to be true if the criterion adopted is the number of scientific personnel working in laboratories. Lastly, the number of significant scientific discoveries made each year can be estimated, and though such an estimate must, of course, be somewhat arbitrary, the result will again show the same rate of growth. A few figures will support the information given above. The number of scientific journals and periodicals which was about 100 at the beginning of the 19th century, reached 1 000 in 1850, more than 10 000 in 1900, approached 100 000 in 1960 and - if the rate of growth remains constant - should be in the neighbourhood of a million at the end of the century.

If we turn to the length of scientific papers, it is getting out of hand. In the past 35 years, the length of paper in four disci­ plines has increased by an average of 64 per cent. The average letter is 30 per cent longer today than it was 10 years ago, de­ spite frequent editorial decrees that they should be short. To examine the problem the most prestigious publications in

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physics, chemistry, astronomy, and mathematics from three countries - the US, Britain and Japan-were studied. Between 1950 and 1980-1983, the length of papers increased apprecia­ bly in each country and for all publications. Values ranged from 13 per cent for the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro­ nomical Society to 115 per cent for the Journal of the Mathe­ matical Society of Japan. Chemistry papers grew the most (93 per cent), with astronomy second (82 per cent), then mathematics (77 per cent), and physics (27 per cent). National averages were: Japan, up 85 per cent; the US, up 65 per cent; and Great Britain, up 45 per cent. The jump in the length of letters is even more dramatic. The average increase over the last 20 years is 74 per cent.

But how should we interpret those findings? Mainly, three reasons are detected for long papers. First, it is easier to write them. As Churchill put it, he needed a week to prepare a five minute speech on an important subject, but he could talk for an hour immediately. Secondly, scientists are rewarded for over­ writing. Long papers in referred journals often lead to promo­ tion and tenure. It is argued that in Britain the pressure to "publish or perish" is now greater than in the US, because of cuts in science funding. Thirdly, writing today is sloppier. Some people suspect that modem authors have to use more words to express a quantum of thought than earlier writers, be­ cause they have not leamt English grammar as thoroughly. Though, not everyone agrees with this interpretation. For ex­ ample, Helmut Abt, longtime editor of the Astrophysical Jour­ nal believes that the length of papers has little to do with the three main points. He says that the answer lies in the scientific content. Science is more complex now. Instruments yield far more information and more space is needed for explanation.

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Many papers that would have been acceptable for publica­ tion 20 years ago are not acceptable now because they do not have enough content.

♦ Read the text asfast as possible, time yourself. Reproduce the main idea.

Text 32

Science in Britain

Learned societies and independent scientific institutions play a large part in promoting the sciences in Britain, although they do very little actual research.

Most pure research is conducted in the universities, which also play an essential part in maintaining the supply of trained specialists. The learned societies play an important part in the discussion and publication of the results of research.

At present there are over 900 learned scientific societies in Britain With approximately 400 scientific publications.

During the recent years there has been a considerable ex­ pansion of scientific and technological training and research within the universities. Most universities have the departments of engineering, some of them including chemical, aeronautical and production engineering. Universities in industrial centres have long been known for studies relating to their local indus­ tries. All universities and university colleges have laboratories or research departments.

The past years have seen appreciable expansion of re­ search in human sciences, including anthropology, sociol­ ogy and psychology.

The traditional method of scientific publication, in which results are written in papers and published in journals, is still

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the main means of communication among scientists. The lead­ ing learned societies have for long been important agencies for communicating scientific information. The most eminent of the learned societies are:

The Royal Society which was founded in 1660. Its present activities include the holding of the scientific meetings, publica­ tion of research work, mainly in the "Philosophical Transactions" and the "Proceedings", the deliver}7of lectures, the presentation of medals. Although an independent corporation, the Society has always had a special relationship with the government.

The Royal Society o f Arts which was founded in 1754. Its principal object has been to promote the progress of all de­ partments of science. It deals with scientific, artistic, technical, industrial and commercial problems. The Society regularly holds meetings and publishes a monthly journal.

The British Association for the Advancement o f Science which was founded in 1831 to promote general interest in sci­ ence and its application. One of its chief activities is the annual meetings attended by many young students as well as by emi­ nent scientists. Its 14 sections cover the whole range of pure and applied sciences and there is a division for studying the so­ cial and international relations of science.

♦ Study the text and retell it.

Text 33

Science and Society in the USA

Science on the scale that it exists and is needed today can, however, be maintained only with large amounts of public sup­ port. Large-scale public support will be provided only if sci­ ence and technology are meeting the critical needs of society.

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Intellectual progress, as measured by advances in specific sci­ entific disciplines, is not in itself sufficient to generate such support. Perhaps it should be, but it is not. Public support for science may be wise policy, but it is not an entitlement.

The central problem is that the costs of meeting the needs of society are too high, and the time scale for meeting them is too long. Both the ideals and the pragmatics of American soci­ ety are based on improvement in the quality of life. We expect better health care, better education, economic security. We ex­ pect progress towards the reduction, if not outright elimination of poverty, disease, and environmental degradation.

Progress towards these goals has recently been frustratingly slow and increasingly expensive. The heavy costs of providing and improving health care and education are examples.

The situation has produced a volatility in public opinion and mood that reflects a lack of confidence in the ability of government and other sectors of society, including science and technology, to adequately address fundamental social needs.

If this mood hardens into a lack of vision, of optimism, of belief in the future, a tremendous problem for science will re­ sult. Science, in its commitment to innovation and expanding frontiers of knowledge, is a thing of the future.

The vistas of science are inspiring. Condensed matter physics is embarked on materials by design, nanotechnology and high temperature superconductivity, each containing the seeds of new industries as well as new scientific understanding. Molecular biology is in full bloom with a vast potential for further intellectual progress, betterment of human (and plant and animal) health, and commercialization. Neuro-science seems poised for dramatic progress.

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Research into the fundamental laws of physics is aiming at a pinnacle. There is a candidate theory - the superstring theory - which is proposed as a unification of all the known fundamental forces in nature and which is supposed to give an account, complete in principle, of all physical phenomena, down to the shortest distances currently imaginable. At the largest scales of distance, observational astronomy is uncov­ ering metastructures which enlarge the architecture of the universe - a deepening of the problem of cosmology prelimi­ nary to its resolution.

Underpinning much of this progress, and progress in countless other areas as well, has been the emergence of scien­ tific computing as an enabling technology.

All this is first-rate science. All this is not enough - either to forestall change or to ensure adequate support for science in the present climate. Why it is not enough - and what else is re­ quired - are the subjects of a special inquiry.

♦ Read and reproduce he main points ofthe text.

Text 34

Should Research be Done at Universities?

The objectives for research in the universities and tech­ nical colleges should be limited to the following three. The first is to ensure that the lecturing staffs-have the opportu­ nity for intellectual exercise and for keeping abreast of their chosen specialization.

The next is to enable postgraduate student to develop the ability to carry out and guide research projects, for which higher degrees are awarded. And, finally, to develop ideas that

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are not likely to produce immediately useful results but which add to the total of human knowledge.

The Function o f Universities

Until recently the universities were the only centers for the propagation of fundamental thought and scientific discovery. When science was a part of philosophy and alchemy was viewed in almost the same way as witchcraft, the existing sci­ entific knowledge was often made redundant, or even found to be totally incorrect, by each new discovery. In such conditions it was logical that the advancement and the transmission of knowledge should be carried out by the same people. Thissituation no longer exists, at least in most branches of science and engineering. Although new developments affect the topics that are worth teaching, they rarely change the validity of ex­ isting knowledge.

In recent years research organizations have been formed for all the major divisions of engineering and for many of the sub-divisions as well. In addition, many of the larger firms now have substantial research sections. Nowadays, the primary function of a university should be education and teaching at the highest levels, all other activities being sub­ servient to this function.

The Research Student

Due to the tendency to include more and more in under­ graduate courses it is probably not until he has graduated that the student will be investigating any topic very deeply. This will also be his first acquaintance with equipment which, al­ though commonly used in research, is not sufficiently funda-

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mental or important to be included in an undergraduate course. These problems may have to be overcome by the general ac­ ceptance of two-tiered degree courses. The second, postgradu­ ate, tier would consist of a wide range of specialist courses, which, while still involving formal instruction, devoted a large portion of the available time to a research and design project.

The majority of the research or design projects carried out during such specialist courses should relate to current or fore­ seeable problems which would make possible close liaison with the appropriate research organization. Special purpose equipment would be used in collaboration with the research or­ ganization, while equipment for more general use would be ac­ quired by the university.

It is becoming increasingly common for engineering gra­ duates to remain at the university to carry out research for a higher degree. As such research is generally fundamental in character, the graduate is likely eventually to leave the university unaware that engineering means compromise and that engineer­ ing problems, unlike scientific ones, often have as many solu­ tions as there are investigators. This situation could be improved if the graduate's first research project was carried out in close collaboration with a research and development establishment, preferably one forming part of manufacturing organization.

♦ Study the text carefully. Work in pairs or small groups. Discuss: I) the necessity of research at Universities; 2) the func­ tions of Universities; 3) the role of the lecturer in research; 4) the duties of the research student; 5) importance of engineering and scientific problems.

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