14. Comment on the formations of the plural form of the loan words (borrowings).

Greek Loan – Words

Singular Plural -is /s/ basis crisis oasis analysis thesis parenthesis hypophesis -on // criterion phenomenon automaton -a // miasma

-es /i:z/ bases crises oases analyses theses parentheses hypopheses -a // criteria phenomena automata -ata /t/ miasmata

15. Comment on the use of the indefinite article with class nouns. Class nouns are used with the indefinite article:

1. When the speaker mentions a noun (which is countable) for the first time:

For lunch I had a sandwich and an apple.

It is also used in sentences beginning with “there is/was”:

There is a newspaper on the table.

2. When the speaker presents the object expressed by the noun as belonging to a certain class. In this case the indefinite article has the meaning of “якийнебудь”, “якийсь”, “один” (in the meaning of “деякий”):

A lady is calling you up, sir.

This is the nominating meaning as we give a name to an object we have in mind:

A man and a woman sat opposite us, but they did not talk.

We saw a house with a lawn in front of it.

When we want to emphasize that we can’t say exactly which person or thing we are talking about because we don’t know or can’t remember, we can use some instead of a/an with a singular noun:

I was asked a really difficult question by some student.

In the plural no article is used in this case. But if the idea of number is implied in the case of the nominating meaning plural nouns may be preceded by words like some, several, a few or by a numeral:

Two (some) men and two (a few) women sat opposite us

I liked the room because there were flowers in it.

"I have brought you some flowers..."

We sometimes use some or zero article with very little difference in meaning:

“Where were you last week?” “I was visiting (some) friends.” It makes no difference whether we are referring to particular friends (with some) or friends in general (with zero article)

3. With a predicative noun, when the speaker states that the object denoted by the noun belongs to a certain class (it is one of a class and has the meaning of “один з багатьох”):

Miss Sharp's father was an artist.

My husband is a sailor.

Tom is a very nice person.

This may be called the classifying meaning:

Her brother was a student at Balliol College.

His aunt, a woman of uncertain age, was also present at the ceremony.

In the plural neither the article nor the pronoun some is used:

Her brothers were students at Balliol College.

They are good children, no doubt.

After the conjunction as a predicative noun is often used without an article:

She was engaged as governess.

4. When the noun is used in a general sense. What is said of one representative of a class can be applied to all the representatives of the class. The article has the meaning of “every”:

A good dog deserves a good bone.

A drowning man catches at a straw.

An actor must learn to live with criticism.

This is the generalizing meaning the indefinite article. It indicates that the following noun denotes a typical member of a class:

A cat is a domestic animal. (= Every cat is a domestic animal.)

A tiger is dangerous. (= Every tiger is dangerous.)

Plural nouns in the generalizing meaning are used without any articles:

Cats are domestic animals. Tigers are dangerous.

This use is common in explanations of meanings and in some dictionary definitions:

In grammar, a noun is a word which is used to refer to a person, a thing, or an abstract idea.

Note 1. You cannot use this pattern when you want to talk about the location or existence of a type of animal, thing or person; for example, you cannot say: “A ringtailed lemur lives in Madagascar”; you would have to say “Ringtailed lemurs live in Madagascar”.

Note 2. “Any” sometimes has a similar but more emphatic meaning:

The greatest threat to any actor is the presumption that knowledge can be automatically transposed into experience.

5. There are cases when the indefinite article preserves its old original meaning of “one”:

He had hardly spoken a word.

In such cases we can speak of the numeric meaning of the indefinite article:

An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.

This meaning is generally found with:

 nouns denoting time, measure and weight:

A week or two passed.

"I'll overtake you in a minute," said Godfrey.

 in certain expressions of quantity:

a lot of, a couple, a great many, etc.

 in the pattern a…of with possessives, as in:

She’s a colleague of mine.

That’s a friend of Bill’s

 after a negative not:

not a word, not a thought, etc.

 in some setphrases: one at a time, at a draught

 the numerals hundred, thousand, million and the nouns dozen, score:

My new car cost a thousand pounds.

 in expressions of price, speed, ratio etc.:

5p a kilo 10p a dozen

four times a day 60 kilometers an hour (a, an = per)