9. Types of punishment

There are several kinds of punishment available to the courts. Crimes are punished according to their seriousness. Punishment may include:— a fine— term of imprisonment (time in jail or prison)— probation or parole— community service.

For criminal offences FINES are often used when the offence is not a very serious one and when the offender has not been in trouble before. For more serious crimes the usual punishment is IMPRISONMENT. The length of sentences varies from a few days to a lifetime.

PROBATION is the suspension of jail time. An offender on probation is ordered to follow certain conditions set forth by the court, often under the supervision of a probation officer.

PAROLE is the supervised release of prisoners before the completion of their sentence in prison. They may be returned in prison if they violate the conditions of their parole.

Parole is serving the remainder of a sentence outside the prison, probation is given instead of a prison sentence.

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT is a form of physical punishment that involves the deliberate infliction of pain as retribution for an offence, or for the purpose of disciplining or reforming a wrongdoer.

COMMUNITY SERVICE requires the offender to do a certain amount of unpaid work usually for a social institution such as a hospital.

RESTRICTING FREEDOM in the form of house arrest as a new alternative type of punishment in the Russian Federation.

10. Russian police

The organizational structure, methods and traditions of the police of the Russian Federation as well as the functions and organization of Ministry of Internal Affairs differ from the police of western countries.

One unique feature of policing approach in Russia is the system of territorial patronage over citizens. The duty of a policeman is to maintain close relations with the residents of his district. He is also responsible for tackling minor offences like family violence, loud noise, residential area parking etc. Police personnel carry firearms, but are not permitted to carry their weapons when they are off duty.

Another unique feature is the use of conscripted soldiers from the Internal Troops for regular urban policing.

On 1 March 2011 Russian law enforcers were renamed from militia to police. Russian police reform is an ongoing effort to improve the efficiency of Russia’s police forces and improve the public image of law enforcement.

11. Foundation principles of civil legislation of the Russian federation

Foundation Principles of Civil Legislation.

Civil legislation is founded on the recognition of the equality of participants in the relations which regulate the inviolability of property, the freedom of contract, the impermissibility of arbitrary interference by anyone whomsoever in private matters, the necessity for unimpeded exercise of civil law rights, and securing the restoration of violated rights as well as their defence in the courts of law.

Citizens (physical persons) and legal persons acquire and exercise law rights through their own free will and in their own interest. They are free in establishing their rights and responsibilities on the basis of a contract and in determining the conditions of the contract to the extent that such conditions do not contradict legislation.

Civil law rights may be limited on the basis of federal law and only to the extent that is necessary for purposes of defending the foundations of constitutional order, public morality, health, or the rights and lawful interests of other persons, or ensuring national defence and the security of the state.

Goods, services and capital shall vote freely throughout the entire territory of the Russian Federation. Limitations on the movement of goods and services may be imposed in accordance with federal law, if such is necessary for ensuring public safety, defending the life and health of persons, protecting the environment and cultural treasures.