- •Contents
- •List of Figures
- •List of Tables
- •List of Symbols and Conventions
- •Acknowledgements
- •Introduction
- •1. English as a Changing Language
- •1.1 Introduction
- •1.2 Sound Change
- •1.3 Lexical Change
- •1.4 Semantic Change
- •1.5 Morphological Change
- •1.6 Syntactic Change
- •1.7 Study Questions
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.2 The Roots of English and Proto-Indo-European
- •2.3 Meeting the Ancestors I
- •2.4 Meeting the Ancestors II
- •2.5 Study Questions
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 Social History
- •3.3 Anglo-Saxon Literature
- •3.4 The Language of Old English
- •3.6 Study Questions
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2 Social History
- •4.3 Middle English Literature
- •4.4 The Language of Middle English
- •4.5 Contact and Change: Middle English Creolization?
- •4.6 Study Questions
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Social History
- •5.3 Early Modern English Literature
- •5.4 The Language of Early Modern English
- •5.5 Contact and Change: English in Barbados
- •5.6 Study Questions
- •6. Modern English, 1700 onwards
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.2 The Eighteenth Century and the Rise of the Prescriptive Tradition
- •6.4 The Twenty-First Century and Beyond: Where Will English Boldly Go?
- •6.5 Conclusion
- •6.6 Study Questions
- •Bibliography
- •Index
List of Tables
2.1 |
Examples of Parsons’ numeral comparisons |
43 |
2.2 |
Correspondence between consonants |
47 |
2.3 |
Cognates and reconstructions |
49 |
3.1 |
Gender classifications for OE nouns |
80 |
3.2 |
OE noun declensions |
81 |
3.3 |
Forms of the definite article the |
83 |
3.4 |
Masculine nouns – strong and weak adjectival declensions |
83 |
3.5 |
Feminine nouns – strong and weak adjectival declensions |
84 |
3.6 |
Neuter nouns – strong and weak adjectival declensions |
84 |
3.7 |
First, second and dual person pronouns |
85 |
3.8 |
Third person pronouns |
85 |
3.9 |
Present indicative and subjunctive inflections |
86 |
3.10 |
Weak verb preterite and past participle forms |
|
|
(one from each main class) |
86 |
3.11 |
Strong verbs (one from each main class) |
87 |
3.12 |
Weak and strong verb preterite conjugations |
87 |
3.13 |
OE be¯on ‘to be’ |
88 |
4.1 |
ME pronouns – first and second persons |
120 |
4.2 |
ME pronouns – third person |
120 |
4.3 |
ME present indicative and subjunctive inflections |
121 |
4.4 |
ME preterite conjugations in weak and strong verbs |
122 |
5.1 |
Present indicative inflections in EModE |
159 |
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List of Symbols and Conventions
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Symbols
Examples of pronunciation are based on Received Pronunciation.
Consonants
|
Voiceless |
Voiced |
Fricatives |
f fat, laugh |
v vat, drive |
|
θ think, Hathaway |
those, scathing |
|
s sand, bus |
z zen, haze |
|
ʃ shop, hush |
measure, freesia |
|
h hand, horrendous |
|
Plosives |
p pint, stipend |
b bottle, hubbub |
|
t tantrum, hate |
d dentist, hard |
|
k kind, coconut |
g guy, anger |
Affricates |
cherry, catch |
jam, fudge |
Nasals |
|
m mine, hum |
|
|
n naughty, handsome |
|
|
ŋ hang |
Liquids |
|
l leak, light |
|
|
r right, wrought |
Glides |
|
j year, young |
|
|
w well, where |
xii The History of English
Vowels
Monophthongs
itree, heat
ihit, sizzle
erain, hate (sometimes
a diphthong – see below)
εdeath, help
æbat, ash
ə (schwa) pizza, around
ahat (Northern English)
Diphthongs
ei rain, hate ai hind, mice ɔi boil, joy εə bear, air
u hoot, blue υ put, could
o note, Fido (sometimes
a diphthong – see below)
ɔ saw, law
ɒ hot, potbut, Hull
ɑ hot (American English)
əυ note, Fido
aυ proud, plough iə here, ear
Other symbols
x as in German ach, Scots loch ʁ as in French croissant
γ a fricative sound with the same place of articulation as [g] ç as in German ich
y as in French cru
over a vowel or consonant symbol indicates nasalization : after a symbol indicates length (as in [e:])
z¯ over a graph indicates length (as in e¯ )
* depending on context, denotes either a reconstructed form, or one which is ungrammatical
derives from
becomes
[ ] phonetic brackets / / phonemic brackets