- •Фонетика
- •1. The articulatory classification of the English vowels.
- •2. The articulatory classification of the English consonants.
- •3. English word stress: notions, types, functions.
- •4. The syllable as an integral part of the word. Types of syllables in English.
- •5. Prosodic system of the English language/intonation.
- •Граматика
- •1. General characteristics of language as a semiotic communication system. Language functions. Language and speech.
- •2. Language as a structural system. Language levels.
- •The morphological level has two level units:
- •3. Systemic relations in language. Syntagmatic relations. Paradigmatic relations.
- •4. Lexical and grammatical aspects of the word. Types of grammatical meanings. The notion of grammatical category. Types of oppositions.
- •5. The noun as a part of speech. Formal, semantic and functional properties of the noun.
- •6. The verb as a part of speech. Formal, semantic and functional properties of the noun.
- •7. General characteristics of syntax. Basic syntactic notions.
- •8. Definition and general characteristics of the word-group. The Noun phrase. TheVerb phrase.
- •9. Structural and semantic characteristics of the sentence.
- •Історія мови
- •1. Periods in the history of English. Grimm’s Law. Verner’s Law.
- •Modern English Early Modern English (1500-1800)
- •Late Modern English (1800-Present)
- •Verner's Law
- •1100-1500: The Middle English Period
- •Лексикологія
- •1. Etymological structure of the English vocabulary. Native and borrowed words, types of borrowings.
- •2. Latin and French borrowings in Modern English, their periodization and recognition.
- •3. Types of word meaning in English. Polysemy and its sources.
- •4. Morphological structure of a word. Immediate constituents’ analysis.
- •5. Productive ways of English word-formation: affixation, shortening, conversion, compounding.
- •7. Systemic relations in the English vocabulary. Groups of words in the lexicon. Neologisms, archaisms and international words.
- •8. Synonymy and antonymy in English. Homonyms and their classifications.
- •9. English phraseology: definition, approaches and classifications.
- •Стилістика
- •1. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary.
- •2. The notion of style in the language. Notion of language expressive means and stylistic devices. Convergence of stylistic devices.
- •3. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices.
- •4. Syntactical stylistic devices; their structural, semantic and functional characteristics.
- •5. Metaphorical group of stylistic devices. Mechanism of metaphoric transfer of name. Types of metaphor.
- •6. Metonymical group. Syntactic and semantic difference between metonymy and metaphor.
Фонетика
1. The articulatory classification of the English vowels.
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis.
Daniel Jones developed the cardinal vowel system to describe vowels in terms of the common features height (vertical dimension), backness (horizontal dimension) and roundedness (lip position). There are however still more possible features of vowel quality, such as nasality, phonation, and tongue root position.
Height
In high vowels, such as [i] and [u], the tongue is positioned high in the mouth, whereas in low vowels, such as [a], the tongue is positioned low in the mouth.
The International Phonetic Alphabet identifies seven different vowel heights:
close vowel (high vowel)
near-close vowel
close-mid vowel
mid vowel
open-mid vowel
near-open vowel
open vowel (low vowel)
Backness
Vowel backness is named for the position of the tongue during the articulation of a vowel relative to the back of the mouth. In front vowels, such as [i], the tongue is positioned forward in the mouth, whereas in back vowels, such as [u], the tongue is positioned towards the back of the mouth.
The International Phonetic Alphabet identifies five different degrees of vowel backness:
front vowel
near-front vowel
central vowel
near-back vowel
back vowel
Roundedness
Roundedness refers to whether the lips are rounded or not. In most languages, roundedness is a reinforcing feature of mid to high back vowels, and is not distinctive. Usually the higher a back vowel is, the more intense the rounding.
Nasalization
Nasalization refers to whether some of the air escapes through the nose. In nasal vowels, the velum is lowered, and some air travels through the nasal cavity as well as the mouth. An oral vowel is a vowel in which all air escapes through the mouth. French, Polish and Portuguese contrast nasal and oral vowels.
Phonation
Voicing describes whether the vocal cords are vibrating during the articulation of a vowel. Most languages only have voiced vowels, but several Native American languages, such as Cheyenne and Totonac, contrast voiced and devoiced vowels. Vowels are devoiced in whispered speech. In Japanese and Quebec French, vowels that are between voiceless consonants are often devoiced.
Modal voice, creaky voice, and breathy voice (murmured vowels) are phonation types that are used contrastively in some languages. Often, these co-occur with tone or stress distinctions; in the Mon language, vowels pronounced in the high tone are also produced with creaky voice. In cases like this, it can be unclear whether it is the tone, the voicing type, or the pairing of the two that is being used for phonemic contrast. This combination of phonetic cues (i.e. phonation, tone, stress) is known as register or register complex.
Tongue root retraction
Advanced tongue root (ATR) is a feature common across much of Africa. The contrast between advanced and retracted tongue root resembles the tense/lax contrast acoustically, but they are articulated differently. ATR vowels involve noticeable tension in the vocal tract.
Accord to the degree of tenseness traditionally long vowels are defined as tense (напряженные) and short as lex (ослаблен). The tense and lex were introduced by Sweet. When the muscles of the lips, tongue, chicks and the back walls of the pharynx are tense, the vowels produced can be characterized as tense. When tense organs are relatively relaxed, lex vowels are produced.
According to the length Eng vowels are subdivided into long and short. Vowel length may depend on:
1position of the vowel in a word
2word stress
3the number of syllables in a word
4the character of the syllable structure
5sonority
1. positions of dependants of length can be illustrated by the following example [bi: - bid – bit]. In the terminal конец position a vowel is the longest it shortness before a voiced consonant, it is the shortest before a voiceless consonant.
2. a vowel is longer in a stressed syllable than in unstressed one: fOrecast - fourcAst.(прогноз – предсказывать погоду). In the verb [o] is shorter than in the noun, though it maybe pronounced with [o] equally long.
3. if we compare a one syllable word and a word consisting of more than one syllable, we may observe that similar vowels are shorter in a polysyllabic word. Thus in the word verse (стих) [3:] is longer than in university.
4. In words with V,CV,CCV type of syllable the vowel length is greater than in words with VC,CVC, CCVC type of syllable. Ex. [3:] is longer in err (ошибаться) (V type) than in Earn (VC type).
5. vowels of low sonority are longer than vowels of greater sonority. It is so because the speaker makes more affort to produce greater auditory effect, while pronouncing vowels of lower sonority thus making them longer. Ex. [i] is longer than [o], [i:] is longer than [a:]
Besides vowel length depends on the tempo of speech.