SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1.What does an abstract provide the reader with?

2.What is the purpose of writing an abstract for the author?

3.Why is an abstract often the last part of the paper to be written?

4.What key questions should an abstract answer?

5.What is the order of information elements in an abstract?

6.Are references acceptable in an abstract?

7.What is an ideal way to build an abstract?

8.What are the qualities of a good abstract?

9.What verb tenses are conventionally used in abstracts?

10.What is the use of tenses in abstracts determined by?

Chapter 2

MAJOR SECTIONS OF AN EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH PAPER

U n i t 3. INTRODUCTION

THE AIMS OF THIS UNIT:

to make you think about the purposes of writing an introduction;

to provide understanding of the typical stages of introduction and their functions;

to indicate the difference between an abstract and an introduction;

to provide insight into the logic of structuring information inside each

stage;

to analyse language features of an introduction;

to provide practice in identifying and reconstructing different information elements which an introduction contains;

to practise in writing an introduction of your own.

STARTING POINT

An introduction is the first main section of the research paper. It is a very important section because here a scientist needs to justify his research and to emphasize his contribution. The introduction should capture readers' interest, making them want to read the rest of the paper.

An introduction can be one of the most difficult sections to write because it is not always easy for the author to decide where to start and how much to include at the beginning.

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It is a good idea to start with what readers expect: a clear explanation of the problem mentioned in the abstract, description of the context from which the research originated and the contribution of other scientists working in the field.

An introduction acts as a bridge that transports readers from general field or context of research to the specific experiment by describing an inaccuracy or insufficiency in previous research which motivates the present experiment.

FOCUS ON STRUCTURING INFORMATION

1. The introduction is typically divided into 5 stages:

general field of research in which the problem is set;

aspects of the problem already studied by other researchers;

indicating a gap;

stating the purpose of the research;

specifying objectives/ methods/ activities.

Scientists do not always arrange these stages in the order described above. Sometimes they interrupt one stage with another, and then return to the previous section. However, the general strategy of structuring the introduction presented above is common and advisable for a researcher-beginner to follow.

Each of the sections fulfils its particular function:

Section 1 - to establish a context to help readers to understand how the present study fits into a wider field of research;

Section 2 – to review the findings of the researche rs working in your area of interest;

Section 3 – to indicate an area which has not been studied in previous literature;

Section 4 – to formally announce the purpose. Section 5 – to clarify some details of the experime nt.

TASK 3.1. In order to understand the functions of each of the five stages of an Introduction, let us briefly examine a fourteen sentence introduction to the article written in the field of carbon nanotube synthesis.

a. Read and translate the text of Introduction.

TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON THE GROWTH OF CARBON NANOTUBES

USING THERMAL CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION1

Introduction

1As one of fascinating carbon materials carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been considered for many different technological applications exploiting their unique electrical and mechanical properties [1 – 5]. 2Various synthetic methods have been developed for the production of CNTs, including arc discharge [6, 7], laser vaporization [8], pyrolysis [9], and plasma-enhanced [10] or thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [11, 12]. 3The synthesis of multiwalled CNTs

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using CVD methods has attracted much attention because of many advantages that high purity, high yield, selective growth, and vertical alignment can be achieved [13 – 15].

4It has been found that the structure of carbon materials is dependent on the growth parameters such as reaction temperature, catalyst, reaction gas, etc. 5A strict control of growth condition allows to design the structure of carbon materials in the nanometer regime [16 – 18]. 6Especially the growth temperature is crucial for selective and controlled growth of CNTs, which is necessary for many applications. 7A number of research groups reported, that the growth of CNTs could be controlled by varying the growth parameters of CVD process [19 – 22]. 8However, there are not many systematic studies on the temperature-controlled growth of CNTs using thermal CVD.

9This present work deals with the temperature effect on the growth of CNTs. 10The vertically aligned CNTs are synthesized on iron (Fe)-deposited silicon oxide (SiO2) substrate by thermal CVD of acetylene gas at temperatures in the range 750-950 °C. 11Configuration and structural characteristics of CNTs have been investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (ТЕМ), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Raman spectroscopy. 12ТЕМ is one of the most powerful methods for the evaluation of the crystallinity of nanostructured materials. 13Because of its very nature, however, ТЕМ does not provide the overall information about the structure of entire specimen. 14We attempt to overcome this shortcoming by the use of TGA and Raman spectroscopy.

Notes:

arc discharge – дуговой разряд

vaporisation – испарение, парообразование pyrolysis – пиролиз

vapor deposition – осаждение из паровой фазы, вакуумное осаждение yield – объём выпуска, выпуск, выход

alignment – выпрямление, выравнивание

scanning electron microscopy – сканирующая электронная микроскопия

transmission electron microscopy – просвечивающая электронная микроскопия

thermogravimetric analysis – термогравиметрический анализ

Raman spectroscopy – спектроскопия комбинационного рассеяния света, рамановская спектроскопия

b. Study the functions of each of the stages of the Introduction:

Stage 1 includes sentences 1-3 which establish a context for a research topic, namely, they describe various methods for growing CNTs.

Stage 2 includes sentences 4–7 which review the fi ndings of other researchers concerning the parameters affecting CNT growth, temperature being one of them.

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Stage 3 is presented by sentence 8 which points out a gap – an important research area which has not been investigated yet, namely, temperaturecontrolled growth of CNTs using thermal CVD.

Stage 4 contains sentence 9 which states the purpose of the paper clearly and concisely, .i.e. to study temperature effect on the growth of CNTs.

Stage 5 includes sentences 10–14 which specify the conditions of the experiment and justify the choice of a variety of spectrometry methods.

TASK 3.2. Read, translate and analyze the following introduction to the paper about comminution of Particulate Materials. Identify the sentences in which you can find the answers to the following questions:

1.What is the general area in which the authors are working?

2.What is the subarea of research in which the problem is set?

2.What is known from the previous studies?

3.What is problem?

4.What is the purpose of the paper?

5.What exactly do the authors present in the paper?

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE

OF AN IMPACT MILL2

Introduction

1In the chemical processing industry, breakage can strongly influence the operation and economics of a manufacturing process [1]. 2Comminution is extremely energy intensive, consuming 3-4% of the electricity generated worldwide and comprising up to 70% of all the energy required in typical mineral processing plants [2]. 3Particle breakage in size reduction processes can occur in a variety of modes depending on material characteristics and the level of applied stress. 4Despite the importance of these processes and the profuse amount of theoretical and experimental investigations, the efficiency of the industrial technology of comminution has not significantly changed in the past 50 years [3]. 5Generally, the efficiency of a ball mill is considered to be less than 1% and only about 2% of the energy in jet milling is used to create new surfaces.

6Impact tests are common and aim to subject materials to forces that are similar to those they would encounter during handling (dilute phase pneumatic conveying, chutes, etc.) and during comminution. 7It is believed that by performing tests on either single or groups of particles that collide with walls or with other particles, a representative measure of particle friability can be obtained [4]. 8Reviews of methods of utilizing breakage and attrition measurements for particulate materials can also be found elsewhere [5, 6]. 9However, tests that combine impact and shear loads (a phenomenon occurs with impact mills) do not appear in the literature. 10Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to perform an experimental analysis of an impact mill. 11First, we

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present a sensitivity analysis that includes the effects of the rotation speed, product mass flow rate and sieve size. 12Then we show some important phenomena that relate to milling, such as agglomeration of the fine product, the effect of the repeated impacts, energy consumption, and how the product loses flowability and tends to cake.

Notes:

impact mill – ударная мельница

breakage – поломка, авария, повреждение, дробление, измельчение comminution – измельчение, дробление

profuse – обильный

ball mill – шаровая мельница, гранулятор jet-mill – струйная мельница, вихревая мельница impact testing – испытания на ударную вязкость

dilute-phase – суспендированный в газовом потоке chute – жёлоб

friability – способность крошиться, рыхлость, ломкость, рассыпчатость, сыпучесть

attrition – истирание; изнашивание, износ particulate material – зернистый материал

shear load – сдвигающая (срезающая) нагрузка, поперечная нагрузка sieve size – диаметр отверстий сита

cake – затвердевать, спекаться

TASK 3.3. Scan the extracts below which are taken from different introductions to the papers in the areas of Ecological Engineering, Environmental Sciences, Chemical Engineering Science and Powder Technology. Identify kinds of information presented in them:

a)general field of research in which the problem is set;

b)aspects of the problem already studied by other researchers;

c)indicating knowledge gap;

d)stating the purpose of the research;

1.The purpose of this study is to investigate and clarify the influence of different coating equipment on the properties of coated films.

2.However, little attention has been paid to the grinding performance of the particulates sample in the working space of the mixer.

3.Vibration is used in many aspects of particulate processing including vibratory conveyors, flow promotion in hoppers, sieving and screening, comminution, etc. Generally, in these cases most powder systems used are not mono-component but multi-component systems and vibration is applied deliberately to achieve a desired effect, which may be to increase or decrease bulk density or to cause flow or failure of the bulk materials. In order to induce

49

the flow and failure, materials must pass through the regime of viscoelastic deformation with an energy loss into a state of sustainable plastic flow. Therefore, a knowledge of dynamic properties of mixtures is essential for a complete understanding of the vibration effects in powder processes.

4.The objective of the work presented here is to investigate the energy dissipation of vibrating binary powder mixtures packed naturally at a low acceleration level (0.05 g).

5.There has been much interest in the properties of vibrating beds of powders in recent years [2-5]. Studies of phenomena including convection, heaping and segregation have been published and it has been clarified that these occur at high acceleration levels above 1 g. Whilst at low acceleration levels below 1 g, Okudaira et al. [6, 7] reported that a powder bed with a topcap mass as a loading weight behaved as a single harmonic resonator and the stiffness properties could be estimated from the transmission of vibration. Matchett et al. [8] studied the energy loss of vibrating beds of particles and compared experimental data with data from distinct element method (DEM) simulation, based upon thermodynamics. He pointed out that DEM simulation was able to qualitatively reproduce majoe features found in the experimental data at high acceleration levels above 1 g.

6.However, there are not many systematic studies on the temperaturecontrolled growth of CNTs using thermal CVD.

7.Fine particles are used in a wide range industries to achieve high quality and multifunctional products. The fluidized bed is one of the particle handling techniques and is used for drying, granulation, chemical reactions, etc. For the process designer, it is very useful to know the fluidity of particles before they design the process that includes the fluidized bed.

8.In recent years, a large number of developments in the field of manufacturing spiral bevel and hypoid gears have been obtained. Qi Fan developed mathematical models of hypoid gear drives processed by face milling and face hobbing, and researched the tooth contact analysis and the tooth surface error correction [4 – 6]; in order to improve the load distribution and reduce the transmission error, Vilmos Simon proposed the optimal machine tool setting and tooth modifications of spiral bevel and hypoid gears [7 – 9]. All of these developments above were built on the traditional methods of face milling and face hobbing. As a result of applying engineering approximation, the tooth profile curves cut by these methods are not ideal spherical involutes, therefore the advantages of using spherical involute profiles, such as transmission ratio constancy and angular displacement insensitivity, are partly lost. Also the calculation and adjustment of machine tool settings are complex, and the interchangeability of the gears cut by these traditional methods is relatively poor [10]. Y.C. Tsai et al. [11] and M.J. AlDaccak et al. [12] respectively proposed the modelling of bevel gears by using exact spherical involute profiles, but they did not discuss the feasibility of cutting ideal spherical involute gears.

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TASK 3.4. Read and analyze the following paragraphs taken from the Introduction to the paper which is concerned with particle deposition and reentrainment. The paragraphs are presented in the wrong order. Restore the order of the introduction written by the author.

EFFECTS OF WALL VIBRATION ON PARTICLE DEPOSITION AND

REENTRAINMENT IN AEROSOL FLOW3

Introduction

___ aResearch on particle deposition in a turbulent aerosol flow has been carried out extensively [1 – 6]; in particular, the particle deposition rate was studied in detail. For particle reentrainment, models for the separation mechanism [7 – 11] and particle reentrainment rate [12 – 16] have been studied, in which the reentrainment was treated as being independent of particle deposition.

___ bParticle deposition and reentrainment are related to numerous engineering applications such as pneumatic transport, dust collection, atmospheric pollution, control of micro-contamination and design of gas-solids reactors. It is important in these operations to accurately estimate and control both particle deposition and reentrainment.

___ cIn the present work, we focus on enhancement of particle reentrainment and removal of the particle deposition layer under wall vibration, and study the effect of the vibration on the simultaneous particle deposition and reentrainment. Furthemore, the criterion for no particle layer formation is explained using a moment balance model.

___ dIn powder handling, a particle deposition layer is often formed in a pneumatic pipeline and small aggregates are mainly reentrained from the deposition layer. In recent years, the formation process of the particle deposition layer in turbulent aerosol flow has been studied under various conditions [19 – 26].

____ eHowever, under actual conditions, reentrainment is closely related to particle deposition and often occurs simultaneously. Thus, several attempts to combine both these concepts into a model were made [17, 18], where the deposition and reentrainment are restricted to the phenomena for primary particles.

2. An Introduction should not be confused with an Abstract. An abstract is a stand-alone section which gives an overview of the whole report by stating: the purpose, procedure, results and conclusions/ recommendations of the paper.

In contrast, the introduction sets the context for the paper and states the purpose of the study and does not include any results/findings and/or conclusions.

In other words, where the abstract starts, the introduction ends.

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TASK 3.5. Following are the Abstract and the Introduction to the experimental report dealing with inventory control. Compare kinds of information included in them and the order of their arrangement. Find out the difference in the position of the purpose sentence.

Abstract

The aim of this report was to investigate the inventory control practices in the food and beverage departments at the XYZ Leagues Club. It was found that the practices in the food department were quite informal and somewhat ineffective whereas the beverage department was quite strict in how the whole inventory control activities and procedures were documented and implemented. Recommendations to improve the inventory control activities and procedures in the food department included the establishment of documentation for each stage in the cycle and especially the registration and tagging of items to enable the tracking and rotation of stock.

Introduction

Inventory control or stock control is an essential part of operating a business. Inventory control or stock control, as defined by Waters (1999, p.4) ‘consists of all the activities and procedures used to ensure that the right amount of each item is held in stock’. It should begin at the time of purchase and be maintained until the item is actually sold and the revenue for the goods received from the customer. The purpose of this report is to investigate the inventory control practices in the food and beverage departments at the XYZ Leagues club and to make any recommendations for improvement.

3. Stage 1 of the introduction, i.e. general field of research in which the problem is set, is considered as a process which can be further subdivided into three steps:

generally accepted facts about area of research;

facts about subarea within a general area;

author’s specific topic.

TASK 3.6. Let us briefly examine a four sentence stage 1 from the Introduction to the paper dealing with formation of porous silicon.

a. Read and translate the passage.

EFFECT OF LIGHT EXPOSURE AND ULTRASOUND

ON THE FORMATION OF POROUS SILICON4

1Porous semiconductors have been known for sometime, offering promising applications in the field of optoelectronics [1, 2]. 2Most of the efforts were concentrated on finding the ways leading to more stable and controllable material properties. 3The replacement of less stable hydrogen with more stable oxygen is for example one of the most challenging problems [3]. 4Hence, the

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control of material properties with external applications such as the light and ultrasound can be very important.

Notes:

porous semiconductor – пористый полупроводник hydrogen – водород

oxygen – кислород challenging – сложный

b. Study the functions of each of the sentences in Stage 1.

Sentence 1 states a well-known fact about area of research, namely, application of porous semiconductors.

Sentences 2-3 describe the subarea, i.e. ways of developing controllable material properties.

Sentence 4 – specifies author’s area of research, i .e. investigation of the effect of light exposure and ultrasound on the formation of controllable material properties.

TASK 3.7. Read and translate stage1 of the introduction to the paper written in the area of Civil Engineering. Identify kinds of information presented in it and answer the questions.

1.What broad framework is this study placed within?

2.What is the subarea of interest that is relevant to this study?

3.What is specific authors’s area of research?

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON PREDICTING SERVICE LIFE OF CONCRETE IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT5

Introduction

1Many costly important constructions in the marine environment have been built or are under construction, such as sea-crossing bridges, submarine tunnels, offshore oil production platforms, harbours, and offshore projects, etc. 2The durability of concrete structures in the marine environment has become a hotspot in the civil engineering. 3For lack of attention to the durability in design, many completed concrete constructions have to cost a lot in repair and reinforcement to maintain their regular services. 4Therefore, durability service life prediction shall be put on the agenda [1]. 5Correct evaluation and accurate prediction of concrete service life under the chloride ion environment are the essential orientation of concrete durability research.

Notes:

marine environment – морская среда

offshore oil production platform – морская нефтедобывающая платформа harbour – гавань

durability – долговечность, срок службы hotspot – горячая точка

reinforcement – усиление, укрепление, упрочнение

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TASK 3.8. Read and analyze the following five sentences taken from stage 1 of the introduction to the paper in the area of bulk solids handling. The sentences are presented in the wrong order. Restore the logical order of presenting information.

COAL CRUSHING PROCESS OPTIMISATION6

Introduction

___ aIn 1983 Cohen [1] estimated that 30 percent to 50 percent of total plant power consumption comes from comminution processes, a value which might even reach up to 70 percent if hard ores handled.

___ bIn mine site context, the crushers are the key components in the mineral comminution process.

___ cDue to the high power requirements for comminution, this process contributes a major proportion to any mineral processing plant’s capital and operating cost.

___ dThe roller crushers used there absorb about 60 percent of the plant’s operating cost.

___ eAlso in the KPC (Kaltim Prima Coal) coal preparation plant, comminution presents the dominating part of power consumption.

Notes:

сomminution – дробление сrusher – дробильная установка

operating cost – эксплуатационные расходы roller crusher – валковая дробилка

4. Stage 2 of the introduction, often called literature review, continues the process of giving background information started in Stage 1. Essentially, it is an organized collection of citations to works relevant to your own research. Literature review helps to assure the readers that you are familiar with the latest findings in you topic area. It also shows how your research can contribute to that field of knowledge.

There two ways of referencing the works of other researchers: 1) focusing on the information provided by the author, e.g.

A number of mechanochemical studies consistently suggest that structural imperfections play a superior role over geometrical factors in the elevation of reactivity [1, 2].

2) focusing on the author himself, e.g.

Opoczy [3] studied the mechanical activation of cement clinker. Nakano et al. [4] developed a new inorganic bonding agent prepared from mechanically activated kaolin.

The first method of citation is also used in presenting background information in stage 1.

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TASK 3.9. In the following examples of stage 2 of the introductions identify the type of referencing:

a) emphasizing the information provided by the author; b) emphasizing the author himself.

1.There are many studies on concrete service life prediction models based on chloride ion permeability [1 – 7].

2.For safe and steady operation and prevention of vibration of a fluidized bed, it is very important to obtain accurate information of fluidization. Hiby [1], Lirag and Littman [2] and Fan et al. [3] measured the pressure fluctuations and investigated their relation to bubble behavior. Moritomi et al. [4] measured pressure fluctuation both in the bed and in the plenum chamber, and derived an empirical equation for predicting the angular frequency of the spontaneous oscillation of a fluidized bed.

3.Furthermore, Wilkinson [9] reported the method of determination of the minimum fluidization velocity by pressure fluctuation in the plenum, and Wey and Shi [10] examined the effect of pressure fluctuation on combustion of incineration.

4.The effect of light exposure on semiconductor processing has been known for sometime [4]. It was also shown that the UV exposure could play an important role in determining the size of micropores in porous semiconductor

[5].The US, on the other hand, can have similar effects such as the changes in density and crystal size through the process of sono cavitation [6].

5. There are different ways of ordering references within Stage 2:

1)from distantly related to your study works to closely related works;

2)from the earliest works to the latest works, i.e. chronologically;

3)from one approach to another approach and so on;

TASK 3.10. Analyse the following examples (A-C) of Stage 2. Which of the methods of ordering references mentioned above (or a combination of them) are used in them?

A. ESTIMATION OF SEISMIC EARTH PRESSURES AGAINST RIGID RETAINING STRUCTURES WITH ROTATION MODE7

Earth retaining structures such as retaining walls, sheet pile bulkheads, cofferdams, bridge abutments and basement walls are widely used in civil engineering. Estimation of seismic earth pressures is very important for the earthquake resistant design of such retaining structures. Pseudo-static analysis based on the Mononobe-Okabe solution is most widely used in engineering practices for earthquake resistant design due to its advantage of simplicity. However, it can only compute the seismic earth pressures at the limit state and doesn’t consider the effect of the mode and magnitude of wall movement on the seismic earth pressures. While earth pressures may fall anywhere between the active and passive state and are closely related to the wall displacement mode especially for seismic conditions. Model test results of Terzaghi (1934), Matsuo

55

et al. (1941), Ishii et al. (1960), Ichihara et al. (1973), Fang et al. (1986) and Ishibashi et al. (1987) all indicate that the magnitude and distribution of earth pressure against retaining walls areclosely related to the mode and amount of wall displacement [1 – 9].

B. A PDMS SELF-VORTICAL MICROMIXER WITHOUT OBSTRUCTIONS8

According to the fluid mixing mechanisms of the developed micromixers in relevant literature, micromixers can be categorized as active micromixers or lpassive micromixers. Active micromixers mix fluids by either actuating moving parts or using external forces, such as pressure disturbances [3 – 5], electrical fields [6], and magnetic [7] and acoustic vibrations [8], to achieve mixing effects. Passive micromixers use complicated 3D structures and shapes along microchannels via complicated micromachining processes, and usually require mixing channels with considerable lengths and novel designs using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations to achieve geometric stirring phenomena to enhance mixing effects [9 – 11].

C. ESTIMATION OF THE PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE WITH INCLINED COHESIVE BACKFILLS: THE EFFECT OF INTERMEDIATE PRINCIPAL STRESS IS CONSIDERED9

There are other theoretical methods to determine the lateral earth pressures when the wall is vertical, in addition to the method of Rankine. Based on the assumption of a logarithmic spiral failure surface, Caquot and Kerisel (1948) developed tables of earth pressure coefficients. Sokolovski (1960) presented a method based on finite-difference solution. Habibagahi and Ghahramani (1979) developed a solution for lateral earth pressure coefficients based on zero extension line theory.

All the above methods can not be used in the case where the soil behind the wall is sloping and consists of soils with cohesion. With the trial wedge (graphical) method NAVFAC (1982) determined the active lateral force for each case using a force polygon.

6. Stage 3 of the introduction is directly derived from reviewing previous research. It indicates a gap, an important aspect of research area which has not been studied yet or needs a completely different approach caused by highly contradictory and complex nature causing disagreement among scientists.

TASK 3.11. Following is a fourteen sentence Introduction to the paper published in Advanced Powder Technology journal.

a) Scan the introduction and identify:

1)the sentence which contains stage 3;

2)the word signal which is used to indicate the beginning of stage 3?

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b) Read and translate the text, then answer the questions:

1.What is the area of research within which the problem is raised?

2.Do you think the author thoroughly examined previously published works related to his study? If yes, what testifies to this?

3.According to literature review, what aspects of fluidization behaviour have already been studied?

4.What aspect of fluidization behaviour has not been addressed yet?

5.What is the purpose of this study?

FLUIDIZATION BEHAVIOUR OF GLASS BEADS UNDER DIFFERENT

VIBRATION MODULES10

1Vibro-fluidized beds are commonly used for thermal processing of relatively large size particles and sticky or cohesive particles, e.g. drying, heating or cooling, coating, granulation and nitriding of steel.

2Some studies of the effect of vibration on fluidization quality of powders can be found in the literature. 3Gupta and Mujumdar [1] found that the pressure drop over the bed was reduced due to the vibration at the minimum fluidization. 4Yoshida et al. [2] studied the fluidization behaviour of sand and other powders with vibration. 5They reported that the voidage and minimum fluidization velocity decreased when the bed was vibrated, and that the pressure drop over the bed increased when vibration was applied. 6Erdesz and Mujumdar [3] found that the minimum fluidization velocities of conventional and vibro-fluidized beds of various particles could be described well with the modified Ergun equation. 7The behaviour of vibrated particle beds under reduced air pressures was investigated, using flow visualization, by Akiyama et al [4]. 8They reported that the smaller the particle size, the greater the effect of air pressure on the behaviour of the bed, and that the particle circulation rate decreased with increasing magnitude of the reduced gage air pressure in beds of small (99µm) and intermediate size (227 µm) glass beads. 9Kage et al. [5] studied the effect of the vibration direction and frequency on powder coating in vibro-fluidized bed. 10In addition, the effect of vibration on the fluidization quality of cohesive powders was reported [6-8]. 11In none of these studies, however, was the effect of the vibration direction on the fluidization behaviour studied under varying conditions. 12The objective of this paper is to study the effect of the vibration direction on the fluidized state and particle movement in bed. 13The influence of experimental operating parameters, such as amplitude and frequency of vibration, and superficial gas velocity, is studied at different vibration directions. 14The fluidization behaviour of glass beads is examined by the bed expansion and pressure drop curve.

Notes:

fluidized bed – псевдоожиженный слой sticky – липкий; вязкий

cohesive – когезионный, связующий nitriding – азотирование

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pressure drop – падение давления, перепад давлений voidage – пористость

gage – измерительное устройство

7. Stage 4 of the Introduction, the statement of purpose, follows immediately from Stage 3. It expresses the intention of the author to solve the problem stated in Stage 3 and fill the gap. The purpose of the study should be formulated as clearly and concisely as possible.

The statement of purpose may be oriented either to

a)research, e.g. the purpose of the study was to analyze … or to

b)the paper which describes the research, e.g. the purpose of the paper is to analyze … .

TASK 3.12. Following are examples of Stage 4 of Introductions to different research papers. Determine the type of orientation of the statement of purpose: either to research, or to the paper.

1.In this study, we discuss the quality of adsorbed water while controlling its amount.

2.The main purpose of this paper is to provide information on grinding performance of talc particulates without grinding media (beads) by the highspeed rotor mixer.

3.In this study we report a systematic experiment to investigate the role

of NH3 in the alignment of CNTs.

4.The objective of this paper is to provide design information for flow iad systems in the pneumatic conveying of powders, involving the use of a knocker on a pipeline.

5.In this study, characteristics of particulate matter in pressurized coal combustion for high-efficiency power generation systems are investigated by using the percolation model.

6.In the present paper, the electrostatic forces between coated materials are theoretically studied, and electrostatic repulsion and attraction are analyzed

TASK 3.13. Following are examples of Stages 3 and 4 of the introductions to different research papers published in Advanced Powder Technology journals. Match Stage 3, indicating a gap, from list A with Stage 4, stating the purpose, from list B.

A.

1. However, changes in the polarity of adsorbed water molecules by milling have not been taken into account.

2. However, little research on passive earth pressure has been done with respect to the intermediate principal stress. J. Zhang [13] has done some work. Further studies are still necessary to calculate passive earth pressure considering all principal stresses.

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3.However, industrial particles are usually poly-disperse, so it is necessary to prepare reliable reference particles with a known size distribution and physical properties.

4.However, research on particle charging by impact on thin polymer film is rare and there are many points that are not clear.

5.However, the surface area of one molecule adsorbed on a solid substrate is not known with good accuracy.

B.

a.The purpose of this paper is to determine the passive lateral earth pressure distribution on a retaining structure against an inclined cohesive backfill when considering the intermediate principal stress.

b.We propose a new approach to calculate the variations of the molecular areas of some organic molecules as a function of the temperature.

c.In this paper, experimental and theoretical studies have been conducted on particle size measurement of two kinds of spherical glass beads.

d.In this paper, particle charging on polymer film is studied and the effect of the thickness of the polymer film on the charge transfer is analyzed.

e. In this study, we discuss the quality of adsorbed water while controlling its amount.

FOCUS ON LANGUAGE USE

1. The use of articles with generic and specific noun phrases.

To describe the context of research in Stage 1 we often use factual statements which refer to entire classes of things, objects or concepts. Noun phrases used in general statements are called generic. There are different ways to write generic noun phrases:

−if the noun is countable, use a/an (singular) or – s on the end (plural);

−if the noun is uncountable, do not use any article or s-ending.

For example:

To move the reader from the general area toward specific topic you may need to use specific noun phrases, i.e. nouns which refer to particular, individual members of a class rather than to the class as a whole. In this case the definite article the is used.

For example:

TASK 3.14. Look at stage 1 of the Introduction to a paper dealing with particle deposition in porous materials. In it all the generic noun phrases are underlined and all the specific noun phrases are in italics.

a.Indicate which of the generic noun phrases are countable (plural or singular) or uncountable;

b.Identify the preceding or the following information which makes the meaning of the noun specific.

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HYDROSOL DEPOSITION IN POROUS MEDIA:

THE EFFECT OF SURFACE INTERACTIONS11

Introduction

Particle deposition in porous media plays an important role in many industrial and natural processes. The retention of particles in porous media from dilute solid-liquid suspensions passing through them forms the basis of deep-bed filtration which is used widely in treating water and waste water. Deep-bed filtration is also applied in eliminating impurities from boiler feed water, and in removing inclusions from molten metals and polymers. The presence of particle deposition may cause serious difficulties in some engineering operations. For example, in crude oil recovery, fine particles are often released by oil-bearing formations when injected with water. Subsequent deposition of the entrained particles may lead to a significant reduction of the permeability of the formation and decrease in oil recovery. Similarly, the operation of fixed-bed catalytic reactors may be rendered ineffective because of reactors’ being plugging with fine particles.

TASK 3.15. Read the extract from Stage 1 of the Introduction to a paper dealing with particle deposition in porous materials. Underline all generic noun phrases once and all specific noun phrases twice Then answer the questions:

a.What is the ratio of generic noun phrases to specific noun phrases?

b.Which of the generic noun phrases are countable and which are uncountable?

c.How many of the countable generic nouns are written in the plural and singular form?

d.For each specific noun phrase find the reference(before or after the noun) that makes its meaning specific?

CUTTING GEOMETRY AND BASE-CONE PARAMETERS OF MANUFACTURING HYPOID GEARS BY GENERATING-LINE METHOD12

Introduction

Hypoid gears are widely used to transmit crossed-axis power and motion in vehicles, ships and aircrafts, and could offer higher load capability and axis position flexibility than spiral bevel gears. The basic geometry of hypoid gears were established by Wildhaber [1] and Baxter [2], after decades of development, there are two major processes called face milling and face hobbing for cutting hypoid and spiral bevel gears in the current gear manufacturing industry [3]. In recent years, a large number of developments in the field of manufacturing spiral bevel and hypoid gears have been obtained. Qi Fan developed mathematical models of hypoid gear drives processed by face milling and face hobbing, and researched the tooth contact analysis and the tooth surface error correction [4 – 6]; in order to improve the load distribution and reduce the transmission error, Vilmos Simon proposed the optimal machine tool setting and tooth modifications of spiral bevel and hypoid gears [7 – 9]. All of these developments above were built on the traditional methods of

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face milling and face hobbing. As a result of applying engineering approximation, the tooth profile curves cut by these methods are not ideal spherical involutes, therefore the advantages of using spherical involute profiles, such as transmission ratio constancy and angular displacement insensitivity, are partly lost.

TASK 3.16. Following is Stage 1 from the Introduction to a paper in the area of Mechanical Engineering. Fill in the blanks with the articles a, an, the where necessary.

ESTIMATION OF THE PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

WITH INCLINED COHESIVE BACKFILLS:

THE EFFECT OF INTERMEDIATE PRINCIPAL STRESS IS CONSIDERED13

Introduction

___Passive earth pressure plays ___important role in ___soilstructure interaction in many structures in ___civil engineering such as ___retaining walls, ___retaining piles around ___foundation ditch, and so on. Therefore, estimating ___pressure accurately is very useful in ___geotechnical engineering, especially in ___design of ___simpler retaining structures such as

___mall gravity retaining walls. ___theoretical framework for earth pressure theory has been firmly established over ___past couple of decades.

___Classical Rankine passive pressure theory is one of ___ most important earth pressure theories because of its rigorous theory, clear concept and simple calculation. Therefore, Rankin’s theory is still used.

2. Special signal words are used to indicate the beginning of Stage 3.

Connectors such as however, but and subordinating conjunctions like although, while are used for this purpose. Study the examples:

TASK 3.17. The extracts below are taken from different Introductions, each containing Stage 3. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate signal word and/ or one of the modifiers few, little, many, much, no if necessary.

1._____, very _____ studies are available on the swirling gas-solid flow in a pipeline.

2._____, we have _____ knowledge of the design of the screening operation because many parameters such as the characteristics of powders

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and the vibration condition of screening machines have a complicated relationship in the sieving behaviour of powders.

3.The complex situation described above shows that, _____ precise mathematical definitions about dynamical thresholds for cavitation exist, much work has to be done to establish clear relations between bubble motions and measurable experimental observations.

4.As a result, many investigations have been carried out to research the fire resistance and ultimate bearing capacity of bar-reinforced CFST columns [1 – 3]. ______, studies on the full process of force-deformation of CFST column are relatively scarce.

5.The depressurization of large pressure vessels occurs in process plants either accidentally or voluntarily. Consequently, and for the sake of security, the system behaviour must be understood. _____, the related literature is not abundant.

6.Nowadays, much work has been done on the static performance of corrosion reinforcement [2]. But _____ information is available on fatigue of corrosion reinforcement [3].

7.______ there are a number of studies on screening, all of them have been carried out on the basis of the vibrating movement of a particle on the sieve surface and the insight of passing behavior of a single particle through the sieve media.

3. The use of verb tenses in the Introduction depends directly on the type of information presented:

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TASK 3.18. Scan the Introduction to a paper written in the field of carbon nanotube synthesis in TASK 3.1. Pay attention to the use of verb tenses to express different types of information. Underline Present tense verbs once, Present perfect verbs twice, and circle Past tense verbs.

TASK 3.19. In the extracts from Introductions below identify kinds of information presented in them and put the verbs in the appropriate tense and voice form.

1.Some researchers _____ (report) on fluidization characteristics under reduced pressure. Kawamura et al. [4] ____ (obtain) the relationship between gas velocity and bed pressure drop under reduced pressure. Germain et al. [5]

_____ (fluidize) large powders at pressures below 4.0 kPa (30 torr). Kusakabe et al. [7] _____ (propose) an equation for minimum fluidization velocity under reduced pressure by considering the intermediate flow regime.

2.Fluidization techniques such as granulation, mixing, drying, chemical reaction, etc., _____ widely _____ (use) in many industries. The advantages of utilizing fluidized beds ______ (be) good gas-solid contact and the handling of large amounts of powders.

3.However, systems containing particles of different properties _____

(tend) to show segregation under certain circumstances.

4.In this paper, the fluidization characteristics for cohesive powder under reduced pressure with vibration ______ (discussed). An unusual flow pattern caused by reducing the pressure and vibrating the bed ______

(observed), and the interrelation of this unusual flow pattern with the pressure drop curve _____ (discuss).

5.Granular materials (or bulk solids) in the food, pharmaceutical, chemical and fuel industries _____ usually and routinely _____ (process) through hoppers and bunkers.

6.In this paper, surface modification reactions and enzyme immobilization on silica particles _____ (report). A new reaction method ____

(propose) to prepare the modified silica particles for enzyme immobilization.

7.Many industrial particulate systems _____ (be) multi-components, and their dynamic and mechanical properties _____ (play) a crucial role in determining their processing performance in unit operations [1].

8.For hundreds of years the flow of sand through a constriction of glass

_____ (utilize) to make an accurate, very simple clock. The reason why the sand poured through the hole _____ (form) a pile with sloping sides instead of a pool with a flat surface _____ reasonably (understand) as a result of intensive studies of particle heaping.

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9. The ‘Brazil nut’ phenomenon where larger partic les ______

(segregate) to the top of a bed when subjected to vibration or shaking _____

well _____ (document) [3]. Recently, some researchers _____ (report) what is termed the ‘reverse Brazil nut’ where a large parti cle ______ (segregate) to the bottom of a bed. This _____ (depend) on the density ratio and other particle characteristics [4 – 6]. In recent study, Hong et a l [7] ______ (use) molecular dynamics to model the segregation problem and ______ (present) a theory to explain the Brazil nut and reverse Brazil nut phenomenon based on competition between the percolation effect and the condensation effect of hard spheres.

TASK 3.20. Refer back to the experimental research paper that you found for TASK 2.12. Examine the Introduction and answer the questions.

1.Does the Introduction follow the proposed five-step structure? If not, what stage is eliminated? What stages are interrupted?

2.What is the general area in which the authors are working?

3.What is the subarea of research in which the problem is set?

4.What have you learnt from the previous studies?

5.What order of references is used?

6.Can you single out the problem? What signal word to indicate a gap

is used?

7.What purpose do the authors of the paper state?

8.Is the statement of purpose oriented to the paper or to the study?

9.Do the authors specify any objectives/ methods/ activities?

10.What verb tenses are used throughout the Introduction? Is the use of verb tenses correspond to the conventions described?

PRACTICE IN WRITING YOUR PAPER

TASK 3.21. Following the procedure you have learned in this unit, write an introductiont to your own experimental research paper.

Remember that your introduction should

−set the context from which the research originated;

−inform on contribution of other scientists working in the field;

−indicate an inaccuracy or insufficiency in previous research ;

−state the purpose of the research clearly and concisely;

−specify some objectives/ activities if necessary.

Note:

Although the introduction comes first in the report, many researchers conduct their studies, collect and interpret their results before writing this section of the paper.

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VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR AID

PHRASES USED TO INTRODUCE A DIRECT QUOTATION

X states that ‘. . . As X states, ‘. . .

X argues that ‘. . . As X claims, ‘. . .

X claims that ‘. . . As X suggests, ‘. . .

X has suggested that ‘. . . As X proposes, ‘. . .

X proposes that ‘. . . As X maintains, ‘. . .

X maintains that ‘. . . According to X, ‘. . .

PHRASES USED TO INTRODUCE A PARAPHRASE

Worthington and Britton (1994) explain that . . .

Kotler et al. (2000) have suggested that . . .

. . . as observed by Midler (2006), who argues that . . .

Hack (1984) claims that . . .

As Privet states/notes, . . .

McDonald (1992) highlights that … As Leyden (1985) points out … According to McDonald (1992), …

As highlighted by McDonald (1992), … As identified by Smith (1990), …;

…., as identified by Smith (1990), …; …, as identified by Smith (1990).

VERBS USED WHEN PARAPHRASING THE WORDS OF OTHER AUTHORS

articulate, comment, mention, maintain, note, point out, say, state, suggest, indicate, refer,…

hypothesise, predict, theorise, conceptualise, understand, demonstrate, show, convey, portray, support,

substantiate, corroborate, verify, confirm…..

investigate, research, experiment, conduct, administer, observe, …….. acknowledge, assert, claim, …

argue, challenge, compare, contradict, contrast, counteract, debate, defend, refute, hold, ….

comprise, consist, constitute, embody, characterise, define, identify, recognise, diagnose, …

create, construct, develop, generate, produce, evolve, manufacture, ….… synthesise, coordinate, cooperate, correspond, collaborate, contribute,

share, …

reveal, conceal, ….

analyse, examine, evaluate, scrutinise, criticise, …

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report, record, collect, collate, categorise, document, … differentiate, deviate, distinguish, divide, separate, … access, utilise, deploy, adopt, practise, …

strengthen, increase, expand, weaken, reduce, decrease, contract, condense, ….

convince, compel, justify, explain, clarify, reason, account, … signify, highlight, specify, specialise, symbolise, … accumulate, calculate, maximise, minimise, formulate, … relate, connect, link, associate, correlate, …

exclude, include, situate, locate, place, … condemn, deny, decline, negate, … dominate, segregate, subordinate, … affect, influence, transform, …

conclude, summarise, …

LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES

Being specific

In particular…. Regarding… With respect to…

In relation to… More specifically… In terms of…

Especially, …

Giving an example

For instance, … For example, … This can be illustra ted by… …namely, … …such as…

Clarifying

In other words, … Basically, … …namely, …

Introducing parallels

Simultaneously, … At the same time, … Equally, …

Concurrently, …

Mentioning a common point

Traditionally, … Typically, … Conventionally, …

Commonly, … Often, …

Acknowledging something and moving onto a different point

Although… Even though… Despite… Notwithstanding…

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