U n i t 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

THE AIMS OF THIS UNIT:

to make you think about the importance of the Results and Discussion section for the reader and for the writer;

to provide information on the structure of the Results and Discussion

section;

to analyse language features of the Results and Discussion section;

to provide practice in identifying and reconstructing different information elements which the Results and Discussion section contains;

to practise in writing the Results and Discussion section of your own research.

STARTING POINT

The Results and Discussion section of the scientific paper is the part in which scientists present the findings of their study and comment on them.

The Results and Discussion section is the most intellectually important part of your paper. Results are sometimes presented separately from the discussion and sometimes combined in a single Results and Discussion section. In general, keeping Results and Discussion section combined is more common and appropriate because results make little sense to most readers without interpretation. Combining the results and discussion section allows you to discuss results of a particular test or method immediately after presenting them.

FOCUS ON STRUCTURING INFORMATION

1. The Results and Discussion section of the report presents the findings of the study in tables, figures and in a written text. Tables and figures (graphs, diagrams) present the complete findings in numerical terms, while the accompanying text helps the reader to focus on the most important aspects of the results and to interpret them.

The choice of whether to use a figure, table, or text when presenting results depends on the point or meaning you want the reader to receive from those data. Each form of data display has strengths and weaknesses.

Tables are most useful for

recording data (raw or processed data);

explaining calculations or showing components of calculated data;

showing the actual data values and their precision;

allowing multiple comparisons between elements in many directions.

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Figures are most useful for

showing an overall trend or “picture”;

comprehension through “shape” rather than the actua l numbers;

allowing simple comparisons between only a few elements. The choice is summarized in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 The choice between data display in figures or tables.

2. The body of the Results and Discussion section is a text-based presentation of the key findings which includes references to each of the Tables and Figures. The text should guide the reader through your results stressing the key results which provide the answers to the question(s) investigated. A major function of the text is to provide clarifying information. You must refer to each Table and/or Figure individually and in sequence, and clearly indicate for the reader the key results that each conveys. Key results depend on your questions, they might include obvious trends, important differences, similarities, correlations, maximums, minimums, etc.

To sum up, the text of the Results and Discussion section typically:

gives the reader any information to understand the results;

locates the figure(s) or table(s) where the results can be found;

highlights the important findings;

comments on the results.

Functions of comments

The comments in Results and Discussion sections may analyze and interpret the results.

a)Analysis: What do the results indicate clearly? What have you found? Explain what you know with certainty based on your results and draw conclusions.

b)Interpretation: What is the significance of the results? What ambiguities exist? What questions might we raise? Find logical explanations for problems in the data.

More particularly, comments may:

1)generalize from the results;

2)explain possible reasons for the results;

3)refer to the main purpose or hypothesis of the study,

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4)to compare the results from other studies;

5)note implications;

6)analyze the strength and limitations.

TASK 5.1. Read and translate the example from the reduced results and discussion paper from the International Journal of the Society of Powder Technology. Pay attention to the information elements presented in the section.

A METHOD FOR EVALUATION OF THE COMPONENT UNIFORMITY OF A POWDER MIXTURE BY MICRO FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROMETRY1

Results and discussion

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Figure 2. Relationship between RSD value and measuring volume.

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Notes:

infrared – инфракрасный

reflectance spectrum – спектр отражения

peak – высшая точка, максимум, вершина кривой wavenumber – волновое число

absorbability – абсорбционная, поглощающая способность

abnormal dispertion – аномальная дисперсия, положительная дисперсия

surface roughness – шероховатость поверхности quantitative comparison – сравнение по величине relative deviation – относительное отклонение ratio – отношение, коэффициент

evaluation – определение, анализ uniformity – однородность, равномерность domain – домен, область

least – наименьший

assume – допускать, принимать

bulk sample – валовая проба, первичная проба certify – подтверждать

TASK 5.2. Decide whether the following extracts from a scientific report should be in the Results and Discussion section.

1.The main aim of this work was to find the optimal conditions that ensure the return of maximum profit on the existing leaching facility within the practical constraints of its operation.

2.Three runs were performed, altering the flowrate into the system around a flowrate of 1 L/min.

3.Table 3.2 indicates that the error in the PVC volume balance varied from 9% down to – 16%.

4.Through Bell’s and Kern’s methods, overall heat transfer coefficients were calculated. In conjunction with other correlations, there were also used to determine sell and tube pressure drops. All correlations were compared to experimental data.

5.Pressure Drop: For the tube side pressure drop, standard correlations were used. Bell’s and Kern’s were also employed to calculate the shell side pressure drop. These were plotted against respective experimental pressure drops.

6.As indicated by Figures 2 and 3, the relative accuracies of Bell’s and Kern’s correlations are enhanced at greater flowrates. From these plots it can be seen that Kern’s is indeed the more accurate correlation.

TASK 5.3. Read the extracts from the results on an experiment which aimed to determine the most favourable conditions for producing large uniform crystals of ammonium sulphate in an elutriating evaporating rig. Rearrange the 6 extracts in the correct order.

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1.The crystal size for each batch was found to be approximately equal with an average size of 71.4 – 72.2 µm.

2.Since the ammonium sulphate crystals were very fine, their size was determined by scanning the crystal samples in a particle sizer.

3.Crystal samples were taken ten minutes after the first crystals were observed and the mass of these represented the yield for each batch.

4.The crystal size and yield of ammonium sulphate for each batch were compared and these are shown in Table 4.1.

5.From Table 4.1 it can be seen that crystal yield increased with increasing seed concentration and the greater the seed size, the smaller the yield of crystals.

6.Table 4.1. The mass and average crystal size of ammonium sulphate crystals produced under different crystallization conditions. (Table 4.1 inserted here).

TASK 5.4. Read and translate the reduced Results and Discussion section from the International Journal of the Society of Powder Technology. Identify the kinds of information in it and answer the questions:

1.Which information element is included in sentences 1, 6, 8, 16?

2.What kind of information is contained in sentences 2 – 5, 7, 9, 18–19?

3.What information element is presented in sentences 10 – 16, 20?

GRINDING OF TALC PARTICULATES BY A HIGH-SPEED ROTOR MIXER2

Results and discussion

…

1Figure 3 shows the normalized median diameter, (Dt/Do), of the ground sample as a function of grinding time with a parameter of NR when NV(= 100 min-1) and d (= 3 mm) are fixed. [Figure 3 inserted here.] 2The median diameter decreases rapidly during the initial stage of grinding. 3Subsequently, it tends to level off as the grinding progresses. 4 The median diameter is kept constant over about 1000 min, at which time the median diameter reaches the grinding limit. 5In addition, the median diameter at the grinding limit decreases as N R increases. 6A similar trend can be seen in Fig. 4, which indicates (Dt/Do) as a function of t with a parameter of NV when N R and d are kept constant at 2500 min"1 and 3 mm, respectively. 7( D t / D 0 ) at the grinding limit decreases as NV increases. [Figure 4 inserted here.]

8Figure 5 shows ( D t / D 0 ) as a function of t with a parameter of the clearance, d , when AV and N R are kept constant at 50 and 2000 min-1, respectively. 9(Dt/D0) at the grinding limit increases as the clearance becomes wider. [Figure 5 inserted here.]

10These results indicate that the grinding limit of the sample can be controlled by the operational conditions of the high-speed rotor mixer. 11It seems to be easy to control the median diameter by the high-speed rotor mixer. 12However, it is uncertain what factors are important to control the diameter.

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13Kano et al. have reported a novel method for simulating particulates motion in a device by the PEM [12 – 16]. 14The applicability of the simulation to the particulates behavior in the mixer has already been confirmed by Endoh et al. [10]. 15By applying the previous works, it may be possible to simulate the behavior of the talc particulates in the mixer and to calculate the force acting on the particulates. 16According to the preliminary investigation, the tangential force acting on the talc particulates is an important factor to control (Dt/D0)during grinding.

17Figure 6 shows the relation between the tangential force acting on the particulates and (Dt/D0) at the grinding limit obtained from the experiment. 18The solid line is derived from the least-squares method for all the data. 19It is found that (Dt/D0) at the grinding limit is correlated with the tangential force regardless of the operational condition. 20This implies that the grinding limit of the sample can be estimated by the simulation based on the PEM.

Notes:

normalized – стандартный, нормализованный median – средний

grinding – размельчение, дробление, шлифование level off – выравнивать

clearance – зазор; радиальный зазор; просвет; промежуток, задний угол (инструмента), очистка; расчистка, габарит

simulating – моделирование, имитирование particulates motion – твёрдые частицы applicability – применимость

preliminary investigation – предварительное исследование

tangential force – тангенциальная (касательная) сила, тангенциальное (касательное) усилие

solid line – сплошная линия

least-squares method – метод наименьших квадратов

TASK 5.5. Read and translate the following results and discussion section from a research report in the field of civil engineering. Pay attention to the second part of the section where discussion is presented Identify the functions of the comments and match the questions with the appropriate part of the discussion.

1.How do the results compare with the accepted theory?

2.Why did you the results turn out as the did? How credible are your

results?

3.What assumptions are made in the theory that are not fully satisfied in the experiment? If appropriate, can any improvements be suggested that could be made to overcome any limitations in the experiments?

4.What is significant or important about the results?

5.What are the implications of the results?

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EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL FLOW NETS

TO ESTIMATE SOIL PERMEABILITY AND DENSITY

Results and discussion

The void ratio (e) and the coefficient of permeability (k) now can be determined as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Void ration and the coefficient of permeability.

As expected the Table shows the void ratio, the ratio of void volume to solid volume, reduces as more soil is added to the cylinder.

By using the values for permeability (k) and void ratio (e) in Table 4, a graph relating the two variables was produced in Figure 1 below [Figure 1 inserted here]

The graph clearly indicates a positive correlation between void ratio and permeability. That is, as the void ratio and the number of void in a soil increases, the permeability and hence the ease of water flow is also increased.

In order to comment on the accuracy and suitability of the procedures, a comparison between the experimental results and published data was firstly made. As stated by Schofield and Wroth (1968), the coefficient of permeability for sands typically lies between 1 cm/sec and 10-3 cm/sec. The fact that both experiments conducted yielded a coefficient of permeability within this region (i.e. k=2.86x10-2 cm/sec and k=2.50x10-2 cm/sec), suggests that the procedures are both a reasonable and valid way to estimate the permeability of sand. However, as suggested by Verrujit (2001), the permeability of a soil is also dependent upon other factors. Namely, the properties of the fluid and

Where µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid and k – the intrinsic permeability, which is dependant on the skeletal arrangement of the grains in the sample. It is therefore evident that in order to measure a more accurate permeability, these additional parameters must be taken into account.

Experimental errors can occur due to the presence of impurities affecting the viscosity of the fluid. Great care must also be taken when choosing the test sample, in order to ensure that it accurately represents the bulk of the sand being tested and is uniform in nature. Other possible experimental errors that could alter the accuracy of the results include human error in the timing of the water flow and in measuring all the dimensions. The time measured was 28.33 sec, giving a permeability k=0.0328 cm/sec.

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However, the results from stop watched timed flows may have been inaccurate owing to human error. Flowrate timing variances due to small delayes in stopwatch timings introduced an uncertainty of ±1 second in the time measurement. Calculations show a difference of approximately 7% as a result of the timing uncertainty. This would appear to be a significant difference.

Steps taken in reducing these errors included repeating and averaging all measurements three times. With regard to the flow tank, the accuracy of the manometer pressure readings is also questionable. Whilst drawing the equipotential lines, it was evident that some of the readings were off, and were consequently ignored.

The calculations are based on two dimensional flow, which disregards the flow into and out of the page (when looking at the flow net). Furthermore the soil is assumed to be homogeneous i.e. constant properties throughout implying the permeability has the same value throughout and that the soil is isotropic i.e that the permeability is the same in all directions. It is also assumed no water or sand mass was lost during the procedures. In reality the soil is not ideal and there are variations in its properties, thus there is some error introduced due to these assumptions.

The flow from the injected red is an experimental method that reinforces the theory behind the flow of water in soil, that is flow nets. Upon close examination, it can be seen that the water flow is approximately perpendicular (90 degrees) to the surface of the sand, and continues at a shape at which it also makes contact with the impermeable layer at 90 degrees. The manometer readings recorded also confirm the flow net theory, as can be seen with the equipotential lines which go through areas of equal head. These lines also cross the boundaries at approximately 90 degrees. The equipotential lines, when intersected with the flow lines, produce relatively square shapes.

From the flow tank experiments a permeability k=0.031 cm/sec was estimated. This was also achieved in stage 2 of the permeameter experiment. This is logically correct since the sand in the flow tank would have approximately the same void ratio or permeability (since they are positively related) as a permeameter having been compacted with a few blows of a steel rod. Thus although the method is somewhat imprecise, it is reasonable in estimating the permeability and density of a soil sample.

Notes:

void ratio – коэффициент пустотности, коэффициент пористости coefficient of permeability – коэффициент проницаемости positive correlation – положительная корреляция

voids – поры

water flow – поток воды suitability – пригодность

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accuracy – точность, достоверность, правильность estimate – рассчитывать, оценивать

fluid – жидкость

dynamic viscosity – динамическая вязкость

intrinsic permeability – внутренняя магнитная проницаемость arrangement – расположение, размещение

impurity – примесь

bulk – основной объём, масса

experimental errors – ошибка эксперимента, погрешность эксперимента

delay – запаздывание; временная задержка, запаздывать, задерживать stopwatch – секундомер

approximately – приблизительно

timing uncertainty – временная неопределённость

averaging – усреднение; осреднение, вычисление среднего значения equipotential lines – эквипотенциальные линии

consequently – следовательно; поэтому; в результате, вследствие dimensional – имеющий измерение, пространственный disregard – игнорировать, не учитывать

homogeneous – однородный isotropic – изотропный

reinforce – усиливать, укреплять impermeable – непроницаемый, герметичный imprecise – неточный

density – плотность, концентрация permeameter – пермеаметр

TASK 5.6. Each comment given here comes from a different research report. Determine the function of each.

1.According to the micromixer test results, the lower mixing index indicates higher mixing efficiency to achieve complete mixing. The blue food dye fluid and the yellow food dye fluid can be completely mixed to become a green fluid mixture downstream of the mixing channel of the selfvortical micromixer by the swirly flow fields and selfvortical flow fields.

2.Up to this point, these results are consistent with those of Chapman and Hutcheson (1982).

3.This can be explained as follows. When the radiation is not care in the heating process, the heat transfer in the porous media just by conduction and convection, leading to less heat transfer along the vertical direction in the regenerative oxidation bed. So radiation takes an important role in the process of heat transfer, it is must be taken into account when the transient heat transfer in porous media is analyzed.

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4.This phenomenon can be understood as that the greater the inlet mass flow is, the more heat energy is transported to the porous media within one unit time.

5.The results show that passive earth pressures computed by Rankin’s theory are obviously higher than the new results. The pressures become smaller when b increases from Fig. (4). The pressures change slightly with Poisson’s ratio increasing from Fig. (5).

6.In terms of the consistency of the provided information, the null hypothesis was supported: the provision of high or low levels of information does not correspond to the attribution made.

7.The final optimal results are significantly improved compared to that of GA, which indicates the effectiveness of our two-step optimization search.

8.The results imply that the damping and dynamics of powder beds at high frequencies are quite complex, and the simple model developed here is not quantitatively adequate for higher vibration modes.

9.However, the way that we evaluated flexibility –measuring the amount of rotational stress before breakage – may n ot accurately reflect the manufacturing process for the protective clothing or usage patterns. Accounting for this application would involve measuring more and different types of stresses and their impact on the material.

3. Alternate Short Form

Elements that highlight and locate are sometimes combined in the same sentence and sometimes appear in separate sentences.

Examples of combined highlight +location styles:

The predicted flood point of the column was determined to be 0.87 kg/min (Table 1.1); however, the experimentally determined flood point of the column was found to be 0.82 kg/min (Table 1.2).

The prediction scheme of the tube bending forming process parameters for utility boiler was established based on BP neural network, the moment and boost power network serve as the prediction targets (Figure 9).

TASK 5.7. The following results and discussion section is from a paper in the field of construction and building technology. It studies the effect of marble powder on the properties of self-compacting sand concrete. Identify sentences where a short form for presenting results can be observed.

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EFFECT OF MARBLE POWDER ON THE PROPERTIES OF

SELF-COMPACTING SAND CONCRETE3

1 The effect of MP content on evolution in the mini-slump flow and the V- funnel time flow are respectively illustrated in Figs. (3) and (4). 2 It's clear that the mini-slump flow values increase with an increase in MP content (Fig. 3).

3The V-funnel flow time decreased with an increase in MP content (Fig. 4).

4In other words, the flowability of the SCSC mixes increases with an increase in MP content. 5 The results of viscosity measurement show that the behaviour

of all the studied mixtures is similar and can be best fitted with the power law model (µ = a · γb), in which µ is the viscosity, γ is the rotational speed of mobile,

a and b are the model coefficients. 6 The coefficient a is also called the consistency index, which characterizes the initial viscosity and the coefficient b is called the flow index. 7 In this work, the coefficients a and b are used to characterize the viscosity of the SCSC. 8 The viscosity variation of all SCSC mixtures as a function of rotational speed is represented in full-log scale curves (Figs. 5 and 6). [Figures 5 and 6 inserted here] 9 It can be observed that at a low rotational speed, a viscous behaviour is marked, whereas at high rotational speed a flowable behaviour is dominant. 10 It can also be observed a viscous behaviour of mixtures with time (at T = 20 min). 11 It should be noted that these results are in agreement with recent studies [17 – 19].

Notes:

funnel – воронка, раструб flowability – текучесть, сыпучесть viscosity – вязкость

power law – степенная зависимость, степенной закон consistency index – показатель (коэффициент) консистенции flow index – показатель текучести

log scale – мерная линейка

4. Commenting on Results – Two Patterns

There are two possible ways to order your comments statements (Element 3). You may put a short comment (one or two sentences) after each significant result you mention, or you may leave your comments until all the results have been mentioned.

Two patterns for ordering comments

Alternative Pattern: R1+C1; R2+C2; R3+C3

Sequential Pattern: R1+R2+R3+C

R=Results ; C=Comments

The alternative pattern is best if you have many individual results with specific comments about each result. The sequential pattern is used when there are several individual results to which one general comment applies. (In this case all comments can be presented separately in the Discussion section.)

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TASK 5.8. Look at the two Results and Discussion sections that follow, both from the Open Material Science Journal. Decide whether the authors used the alternative pattern or the sequential pattern in commenting on their results.

A. STUDIES OF ELECTROSPUN CELLULOSE ACETATE NANOFIBROUS MEMBRANES4

Results and Discussion

Morphological Characteristics. Fig. (2) showed the morphological structures of the electrospun CA products with different solvents (DCM, 98% formic acid, acetic acid and TFA), and some of properties, i.e. viscosity and conductivity of the CA solutions were summarized in Table 2. Electrospinning of CA solution in DCM was impossible. The cast film with adhesion and holes was obtained (Fig. 2a), because the extremely low conductivity and high viscosity of the spinning solution (Table 2) caused the spinneret spinning droplet to stretch ineffectively. Few fine fibers and many strange “bellshaped” particles were obtained when formic acid was used as solvent (Fig. 2b). It might be caused by the poor conductivity of the solution, which was consistent with the results found by Han SO [14]. The solution of CA in acetic acid produced a large amount of fibers with very fine diameter and some slubs or spindles, because the relatively high boiling point (117.9°C) of acet ic acid caused the solvent difficult to evaporate during the drafting process. In comparison with CA solutions in DCM, formic acid and acetic acid, the electrospun CA nanofibers using TFA as solvent were continuous and smooth without any beads or droplets in the surface (Fig. 2d), and their diameter distributions were relatively concentrated with the fiber diameter ranging from 100-300nm (Fig. 3), indicating excellent electro-spinnability of the CA solutions in TFA solvent. It might be caused by the low boiling point (72.4 °C) and high conductivity (TFA was a strong acid, could ionize out a lot of H+ and F-) of TFA solvent.

Membrane Properties. The dimensions of CA nanofibrous membranes were listed in Table 3. The mean diameter of nanofibers was 0.198 µm and the thickness of membranes was 406µm. Also, the specific surface area and porosity were calculated and listed in Table 3. The specific surface area of nanofiber membrane was approximately 2.020 107m-1 and the porosity was around 87%. As compared with the filter paper, the specific area of CA nanofibrous membranes increased by 80 times and the porosity was improved almost 2 times. Since the electrospun nanofibrous membrane had very large surface area, this characteristic property was very effective for the adsorption of ions, particles and became an advantage for affinity membrane which separated specific molecules through adsorption based on physical or chemical affinity. The porosity was also an important parameter for the membrane. Though the nanofibrous membrane had a compact structure, it was an open pore structure and therefore, highly porous structure (more than 80% porosity) helped easy permeation of liquid. In order to measure the permeability of the membrane, circular shape of 47mm diameter was stamped out from the electrospun nanofibrous membrane and placed in filterholder. 200ml distilled

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water was pumped and recycled through the nanofiber membrane with a peristaltic pump (BT100-2J, Longer Pump Corporation, China). The volumetric flow rate was gradually increased from 1- 100ml/min. The results showed the membranes exhibited a very high water permeability. When the volumetric flow rate was 10ml/min, the distilled water could easily permeate. The volumetric flow rate steadily increased from 10 to 60 ml/min and the water flowed smoothly. But when the volumetric flow rate reached 70ml/min, the water permeation became difficult. Moreover, the morphology variations after the testing was observed with a JEM-2100F Field Emission SEM. Field emission electron microscope (FEEM) images were taken to study the morphological changes of the CA nanofibrous membrane following permeability test. As shown in Fig. (4), no obvious changes of morphology in the CA nanofibrous membrane were observed after permeability test, indicating the CA nanofibrous membranes had good hydrolytic stability.

FTIR Spectra. The IR spectrum of CA nanofibrous membrane was shown in Fig. (5). CA membrane showed two strong adsorption bands at 1752cm-1 and 1236cm-1, which attributed to the C=O stretching and the acetyl groups, respectively. According to He Jianxin [16] the adsorption band at 1635cm-1 was assigned to the water adsorption, and 1371cm-1 and 1434 cm-1 were assigned to the symmetric and asymmetric vibrations of CH3.

Crystalline Structure and Mechanical Properties. Fig. (6) showed the XRD curve of CA nanofibers. Two broad peaks appeared at 20 10.2° and 21.7°, indicating that the structure of the as-spun CA nanofibers was amorphous, which was consistent with He Jianxin et al. [16]. CA solution in a mixture of acetone/DMF/ trifluoroethylene (3:1:1) was electrospun into nonwoven fiber mesh with the fiber diameter ranging from 200nm to 1µm reported by Zuwei Ma et al. [13], and the CA nanofiber membrane displayed a poor tensile strength (about 100cN/mm2) and a high elongation ratio (40%) at break. The tensile stress curve of the as-spun CA membranes was shown in Fig. (7). In comparison with the mechanical properties of CA nanofiber mats reported by Zuwei Ma et al. [13], the tensile strength of CA nanofiber mats was much higher, which reached 485.9cN/mm2, but the breaking elongation decreased to 13.97%. It might be due to its finer fiber diameter and more centralized diameter distribution, as the fiber diameter was reduced, the alignment of the molecules in the direction of fiber axis was improved, and the orientation of macro molecules existing in the super molecular structures of the amorphous phase played a dominant role in increasing the fiber mechanical properties as reported by Wong SC et al. [17], Arinstein A et al. [18].

Notes:

solvent – растворитель

formic acid – муравьиная кислота acetic acid – уксусная кислота

conductivity – удельная проводимость, электропроводность solution – раствор

spinning – вращающий, вращение cast film – плёнка, отлитая из раствора

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adhesion – адгезия; прилипание, сцепление hole – отверстие, углубление

spinneret – фильера droplet – капелька, капля fiber – волокно, нить

bell-shaped – колоколообразный spindle – вал, валик; ось

evaporate – выпаривать, испарять, испаряться, улетучиваться drafting – черчение, вычерчивание, чертёж

bead – шарик, дробь, бусина, небольшая шаровидная деталь mean diameter – средний диаметр

porosity – пористость adsorption – адсорбция

affinity – сродство, родственность, сходство; близость pore structure – пористая структура

permeation – проникание, просачивание; распространение stamp out – высекать, чеканить

filter holder – фильтродержатель

emission – излучение, испускание, эмиссия, выделение amorphous – аморфный, бесформенный

trifluoro– трехфторзамещенный, трехфтористый nonwoven – нетканый

tensile – разрыв, растягиваемый, растягивающий elongation – удлинение, вытягивание, растягивание alignment – выпрямление, выравнивание

Pattern in example A: _________________________

B. RELATION BETWEEN MEDIUM-RANGE ORDER AND CRYSTALLIZATION IN AL-NI BASED METALLIC GLASS5

Results and Discussion

Fig. (1) shows DSC curves of Al83Ni10Ce7, Al83Ni10Ce5Si2 and Al85Ni10Ce5 melt-spun. Clearly, Al83Ni10Ce7 and Al85Ni10Ce5 metallic glasses, corroborated in ref. [10, 24], are both of typical eutectic crystallization, with fcc-Al and compound precipitated in the first stage crystallization. Three exothermic peaks are observed in the Al83Ni10Ce5Si2 metallic glass.

Fig. (2) shows the XRD patterns of ribbons continuously heated to above temperatures. Formation of the fcc-Al was observed in the first stage crystallization. The second crystallization reaction is due to precipitations of Al3Ni and intermediate metastable phase. Then, the metastable phase gradually decomposed and Al4Ce phase formed upon the third peak. After completion of all phase transformation, the final structure consisted of fccAl, Al3Ni, Al4Ce and some unknown phase.

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The continuous heating DSC curves of the Al87Ni7Nd6 and Al87Ni5Co2Nd6 melt spun are shown in Fig. (3). Three exothermic peaks are seen for Al87Ni7Nd6 metallic glass, while two exothermic peaks are seen forAl87Ni5Co2Nd6 metallic glass.

Fig. (4a, b) shows the XRD pattern of the Al87Ni7Nd6 and Al87Ni5Co2Nd6 metallic glasses annealing at 465 (the first exothermic peak) and 512 K (the first exothermic peak) for 5min, respectively. Five phases precipitated in the first stage crystallization of Al87Ni5Co2Nd6 metallic glass, including fcc-Al, Al-Nd-Ni, Al9Co2, Al3Ni and a metastable phase, while only fcc-Al precipitated in the first stage for Al87Ni7Nd6 metallic glass. This indicates that Al87Ni7Nd6 and Al87Ni5Co2Nd6 metallic glasses are characteristic of primary crystallization and eutectic crystallization, respectively.

The XRD diffraction patterns of as-quenched samples and the corresponding total structure factors are shown in Figs. (5, 6). Structure factor curves with Q greater than 0.5 Å-1 can be divided into two parts. The first section lies between 0.5-2 Å-1 and reflects MRO pro perties. When there is MRO existing, the curve shows a pre-peak. The second section lying between 2-6 Å-1 includes the first peak that characterizes short-range order (SRO) information. Here, we list the values of Q1, S(Q1) and crystallization temperature of those experimental metallic glasses in Table 1, where Q1 represents the position of the prepeak. It can be seen that the prepeak position Q1 keeps almost constant for each group, which indicated that the structural unit size corresponding to prepeak keeps unchanged, while the intensity of the prepeak (S (Q1)) changes with different compositions.

Fig. (7) shows the total structure factors proposed as a function of the crystallization temperature. The results indicate that the crystallization mode has a relation to the intensity of prepeak.

In general, the presence of a prepeak corresponds to compound-forming behaviour [24], or can be attributed to cluster structure constituted of unlike atoms [25]. Zhang et al. [22] have proposed that structural unit corresponding to the prepeak is a medium-range (0.5-2.0 nm) icosahedral quasicrystalline structure with Fe as the centred atom in the Al-Fe-Ce metallic glass. As shown in Figs. (5, 6), the prepeaks have been found in the total structure factor of all presented samples. Here, in the present alloys, it is suggested that the structure of prepeak may be corresponding to icosahedral MRO, and the prepeak intensity of total structure factor is proportional to the amount of icosahedral MRO. Primary crystallization of Al-based metallic glasses is usually related to the high Al concentration [10]. As illustrated in Fig. (1), Al85Ni10Ce5 and Al83Ni10Ce7 metallic glasses are both typical of eutectic crystallization. While either the Al or the Ce was replaced by the Si for the two alloys, the obtained Al83Ni10Ce5Si2 metallic glass exhibits a unique primary crystallization. Therefore, the occurrence of primary crystallization is not aroused by the high Al concentration for Al83Ni10Si2Ce5 metallic glass. In the case of Al83Ni10Ce7, Al85Ni10Ce5 and Al83Ni10Ce5Si2 metallic glasses, it can be found that the amount of MRO decrease with Si addition, correspondingly, the crystallization mode transforms from eutectic

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crystallization (Al83Ni10Ce7 and Al85Ni10Ce5) to primary crystallization (Al83Ni10Ce5Si2). A same trend is obtained in the case of Al87Ni7Nd6 and Al87Ni5Co2Nd6 metallic glasses. The amount of MRO increase with the Co addition, correspondingly, the crystallization mode transforms from primary crystallization (Al87Ni7Nd6) to eutectic crystallization (Al87Ni5Co2Nd6). This can be well summarized in Fig. (7), which indicates that the amount of MRO has an important effect on the crystallization, that is, an increased amount of MRO can suppress the precipitation of primary fcc-Al, while a decreasing amount of MRO can promote the precipitation of primary fcc-Al. Tanaka [26] has suggested that local icosahedral structures act as random fields against the crystallization during crystallization of intermetallic crystals. Here, it is reasonable to conclude that the increased amount of MRO can keep the amorphous structure more stable and suppress the precipitation of primary fcc-Al.

The present results can be also explained in view of atomic diffusion. It is generally known that the crystallization is accompanied by atomic diffusion to nucleate and grow. Recently, Das [27] found that the alloys liquids with larger prepeak on the total structure factor have smaller diffusion coefficients through using both simulation and the neutron scatting method. This research fruit can well explain the relation between the amount of MRO and crystallization mode, since the amorphous structure can be regarded as the frozen alloy liquid. The decreasing amount of MRO offers a faster diffusion rate to promote the precipitation of primary fcc-Al. While the increased amount of MRO offer a slower diffusion rate to suppress the precipitation of primary fcc-Al.

Notes:

melt-spun – сформированный из расплава

corroborate – подтверждать; подкреплять, поддерживать (теорию, положение)

eutectic – эвтектика, эвтектический exothermic – экзотермический ribbon – узкая полоса

precipitation – выпадение в осадок, осаждение, осадкообразование, выкристаллизовывание

metastable – метастабильный, метаустойчивый completion – завершение, окончание annealing – отжиг || отжигать

as-quenched samples – образцы после закалки cluster structure – кластерная структура

icosahedral – двадцатигранный, икосаэдральный, икосаэдрический quasi – квази, мнимый

suppress – подавлять, гасить

neutron scattering – рассеяние нейтронов diffusion rate – скорость диффузии

Pattern in example B: _______________________

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TASK 5.9. Surf the Internet, go to the library or address your scientific advisor in order to find an experimental research paper in your field. Analyze the results and discussion section and answer the questions.

1.Which element of information is represented by each sentence in your example?

2.Which order is used to present the information elements: the three step format or the shorter two-step alternative?

3.Are comments arranged according to the alternative pattern or the sequential pattern?

4.What functions do the comments serve?

FOCUS ON LANGUAGE USE

The writing conventions in the Results and Discussion section will help you to choose the appropriate verb tense or modal auxiliary for each element of information. Some special words and expressions which you can use to report different types of findings are given here.

VERB TENSE IN THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SECTION

1. PRESENTING RESULTS AND EXPLAINING THE FINDINGS

TASK 5.10. Read the following extract from a Result and Discussion section (tables and figures have been omitted) and identify which verb tense/verb forms are represented by the underlined words in each sentence (present, past, or modal verb). Can you think of a reason for the use of different tenses in different sentences?

PREPARATION OF PLLA-CO-BIS A ER/VMT NANOCOMPOSITES BY IN

SITU POLYMERIZATION PROCESS6

Results and discussion

Effect of VMT on the Molecular Weight of the Nanocomposites

The effect of VMT on the molecular weight of PLLA-co-Bis A ER matrix is shown in Table 1.

From Table 1 it can be found that the molecular weight of PLLA/VMT nanocomposites with 0.5wt.% was nearly the same as the pure PLLA. With continuous increasing clay content, the molecular weight of the PLLA/VMT decreased to 30109 when the amount of VMT went up to 2 wt.%. In the presence of 0.5wt.% VMT, the molecular weight of the PLLA-co-Bis A ER/VMT nanocomposite decreased form 145500 to 126100, and reached the minimum of 81800 with 2 wt.% VMT loading. The molecular weight of the polymer decreased with the continuous increasing clay content

The results can be explained by considering two possible reasons which are responsible for the reduction of molecular weight: 1. the presence of extra amino on the VMT particles; 2. high viscosity of PLLA chains at the end of the in situ melt polycondensation.

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Notes:

clay content – содержание глины molecular weight – молекулярная масса

reduction – редуцирование, редукция, понижение, уменьшение, ослабление

animo – consisting of, or containing the group of a toms – NH2 polycondensation – поликонденсация

Dispersion of VMT Nanoparticles

Fig. (3) shows the TEM micrographs of PLLA-co-Bis A ER/VMT (2 wt%) nanocomposite. The light and the dark regions represent PLLA-co-Bis A ER and VMT, respectively. From Fig. (3), a heterogeneous disordered nanostructure can be observed. The average size of the stacked and exfoliated silicate layers appears to reach about 100nm in length, and which are nicely distributed in the PLLA-co-bis A ER matrix. However, we cannot estimate the thickness precisely from the TEM image.

Notes:

heterogeneous – гетерогенный, неоднородный stack – пакетировать, укладывать в штабель exfoliated – расслаивать(ся)

precisely – точно

Summarize your findings using the following sentence starters:

1.In results and discussion section the past tense is used to talk about…

2.The present tense is used in sentences that…

3.Modal verbs and tentative verbs are used to…

Compare your answers with the points below.

The tense of verbs will vary in the results and discussion section, generally between the simple present and simple past. The verb may also vary in degrees of certainty, e.g. ‘ may’, ‘can’, ‘could’ etc. be found.

1. Locating the figure: Present Tense

Examples: The EP lines and flow lines are illustrated in Figure 2 below. Tables 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 summarize the balances around the system.

Notice in the examples that the locational statements can be written in either the active or passive voice, but in both cases the present tense is used.

2. Presenting the findings: Past Tense (either active or passive)

Example: The yield of carbon and mechanical strength of carbon particles were found to increase with the concentration of nickel in the catalyst, to reach their maxima at 90-96 % nickel.

Note: In some fields such as engineering and economics, authors may present their findings in the present tense.

3. Commenting on the results

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3.1. Commenting on the results: Modal Auxiliaries and Tentative Verbs.

When the comment gives a possible explanation for the result, use a modal auxiliary.

Example: These results may be explained by the variation in temperature during the experiment.

When the comment generalizes from the results, use may.

Example: The results demonstrate that nanotubes may be used for nanomechanical or nano-electromechanical systems (NEMS)

Tentative verbs in the comments

Examples: It appears that opened nanotubes show slightly higher storage as shown by samples IV and V.

It appears that hydrogen is between graphite planes of the fibres.

It seems to be easy to control the median diameter by the high-speed rotor mixer.

An examination of the metal-decorated nanotubes suggests that the metal nanoparticles get deposited on the acid sites, which are dispersed all over the surface of the nanotubes.

TASK 5.11. Read the following extracts (tables and figures have been omitted) and decide which of the verb choices is appropriate.

A. Similarly, Figure 3 (shows, showed, is shown) the relationship between the tube flowrates, the OHTC and the tube pressure drop. It also (compared, compare, compares) the OHTCs the two streas with different inlet temperatures. The same trend as in Figure 2 (found, was found, is found) in Figure 3. The OHTC and the tube pressure drop (are strongly related, were strongly related, strongly relate) to tube flowrate. Also, (it was seen, is seen, can be seen) that the OHTC (varies, vary, varied) insignificantly with differing entrance temperatures.

B. Using these data, along with the time taken for the water to descend down 1 m of the tube, k (is, can be, was) calculated foe each stage in the permeameater test. Similarly, the void ratio e (is, was, can be) determined from the mass of sand in the permeameter. (Calculations (are, were can be) detailed in the Appendix, section 7.1). The values for k and e (were, are, can be) shown in Table 4 [Table 4 inserted here] and plotted against each other in Figure 1 below [Figure 1 inserted here]. Since the permeability of the soil in the flow tank was, (is, can be) known, the void ratio (was, is, can be) determined using the relationship between void ratio and permeability: k=0.0259 cm/sec and hence the corresponding void (was, can be, is) e=0.694.

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2. INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS

1. The verb tenses in the discussion section depend on the type of information you want to present. The verb tense most commonly used in referring to the purpose, the hypothesis, and the findings is the simple past.

Referring to the purpose

Example: The research attempted to study the nickel-silika system in the same manner.

Referring to the hypothesis and restating the findings

Example: Both the alternative hypotheses for consensus and distinctiveness information were supported: high consensus and high distinctiveness information creates an external attribution while low consensus and low distinctiveness information causes an internal attribution. Thus, when information is high in consensus or distinctiveness an attribution is made to the situation and not the person while for information low in either of these characteristics the opposite is true.

2. In discussion statements that explain possible reasons for, or limitations to, the findings, the present, past, or modal auxiliaries may be used. The choice depends on whether the explanation for the specific findings is restricted to your study (past) or whether it refers to a general condition (present). Modal auxiliaries may also be used to emphasize the speculative nature of these statements.

Explaining possible reasons:

Example: Presumably, this may be caused by the higher vibration mode of the powder bed.

Limiting the findings

Example: Other industries may produce different results.

When the comment compares your results with the results of other studies, use the present tense.

Example: These results are consistent with those of other studies suggesting that the parameters of the vibration source are constant throughout the entire series of the experiment.

The results of the experiment in terms of consistency oppose the trend suggested in the literature by researchers such as McBeatty (1989) and Orbit et al. (1997).

3. As you move from the specific considerations of your study to broader, more general statements about the importance of the study as a whole, use simple present tense and modal auxiliaries/tentative verbs.

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Implications:

Example: The implications are that the dominating mechanism of the energy dissipation in the vibrating binary powder mixtures at low acceleration levels is the deformation of beds due to the resonant effect, and the properties of binary powder mixtures in open-top systems can be predicted by the twophase model along with the top-cap data.

Recommendations and applications

Example: The approach outlined in this study should be replicated in other manufacturing plants.

We recommend that the approach outlined in this study be replicated in other manufacturing plants.

TASK 5.12. In the comments below put the verbs in the appropriate tense form according to the type of information they express.

There (are, were) several possible causes for the differences between the theoretical and the experimental values of the profit. First. Measurements of the flowrates (1 L/min typically) (produced, may have produced) errors of around 1% , because the volumes (were, may have been) obtained from a measuring cylinder that had an uncertainty of ±0.01 L (out of 1L typically) and the times (were, might have been) measured by a stopwatch with an uncertainty of ±0.5 seconds (in 60 s typically). A second possible contributing factor to be error in the profit (is, was) that of the concentration measurements. The propagation of these concentration errors (would explain, explains) a further 3% of the discrepancy between the incoming and the outgoing flowrates of dye. Finally, there (may have been, is) a significant error in the third measurement, because the feed pump (is, was) passing air bubbles into the system due to the low level of slurry in the feed tank.

The results as a whole (may confirm, confirm) that the trade-off between the quality and the production rate (does, do) exist (see Figure 3.1) and that the optimum water flowrate (is, was) the key point to achieve the maximum profit for an existing plant. The maximum PVC concentration of 75 % reported in the literature (Davies, 1989) (was, is) not reached practically as the underflow pumps (might have been, were) clogging for any concentration above 38%. For future improvements, the underflow pumps (should be, are) substituted by more efficient ones that can handle more solid rich slurries.

COMMENTS: CAUSE AND EFFECT

Many phenomena are better understood by describing their causes and effects. When scientists see a connection between one fact and another, they try to show a cause-and-effect relationship. The cause explains why something happens. The effect describes what happens. Almost all writing about science

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and nature is concerned with cause and effect. For example, why does the ocean's tide move into and out of the shore? In what way does the moon effect this? The answer is that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the moon and the movement of the ocean. There are several ways to express this.

(1)Because of the moon's gravitational pull, there are ocean tides.

(2)The ocean tides are affected by the moon's gravitational pull.

(3)The moon has a gravitational pull; consequently, there are ocean

tides.

Sentence Patterns that Indicate Cause and Effect

(a)

Because of / Due to} X, there is Y.

Or

Because of / Due to}X, Y happens.

(b)

X{affects / influences} Y.

Or

Y{ is affected / is influenced}by X.

(c)

X{causes / produces / results in }Y.

Or

Y{is caused / is produced by / is a result of / is due to}X.

(d)

When / If / Because}there is X, Y happens.

(e)

X is {the cause of / the reason for}Y.

TASK 5.13. Read the following text and identify the cause and effect relationships.

A pulse laser is basically a device for storing energy and then releasing it all at once to give a very intense beam of light. The heart of the laser is a crystal or tube of gas or liquid into which energy is pumped. This is usually done by surrounding it with a device to produce a powerful flash of light or an intense beam of radio waves or electrons. As pumping occurs, more and more of the atoms inside take up energy and are excited to high energy states. Suddenly an atom spontaneously returns to its first energy state and gives out a

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particle of light(a photon). This photon strikes another excited atom and causes it to produce another photon. Very rapidly, a cascade of photons develops. The crystal or tube is closed at both ends by mirrors and the photons bounce to and fro between them, building up the cascade. A proportion of this light is able to escape through one of the mirrors, which is half-silvered, and an intense flash of light emerges from the laser.

PRESENTING DIFFERENT TYPES OF FINDINGS

There are three types of findings that you may need to report, depending on the kind of study you do. Specific words and expressions are used in writing about each type.

1. In some scientific studies the findings involve a comparison. Comparison is used to determine and quantify relationships between two or more variables by observing different groups that either by choice or circumstance are exposed to different treatments.

Qualification of comparison

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When the findings involve a comparison the statements are often written using comparative or superlative expressions.

Example: A comparison of the concentration profiles for the two adsorbents revealed that the wave fronts were much sharper in the case of the Lix sorbent than those for the NaX sorbent.

As represented in Figs. (5) and (6), the highest values of a, is obtained in the case of 250 kg/m3 of MP. It can also be observed that for high rotational speeds (up to 30 rpm) the mixtures containing 350 and 250 kg/m3 of MP show more flowable consistency than the mixture made with 150 kg/m3. We can also see that the lowest values of b are obtained in the case of 250 kg/m3 of MP.

2. In other studies the findings show the tendency of a variable to fluctuate over time. To report these kinds of results, use expressions of variation or special verbs of variation in these statements.

Describing change

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Note: Not all the words above can go with each other e.g. use steady rise,

NOT steady fluctuation.

Example: For both the sorbents, there was a fall in the temperature with an increase in pressure ration.

Describing the information in a graph a trend involves a direction

a curve involves a shape or position

Example: The temperature profiles in the case of NaX were more flat whereas those of LiX showed some sharp peaks.

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3. Findings of a third type show the relationship of one variable with another, or relationships among variables. When you report these kinds of results, it is common to use verbs of correlation or association.

Verbs of correlation/association

correlated with

to be negatively correlated with associated with

Example: Dry weight of top growth was not closely related to total nitrogen.

It is found that (Dt/D0) at the grinding limit is correlated with the tangential force regardless of the operational condition.

TASK 5.14. Look at each of the following figures. Decide whether the type of findings represented in each figure is comparison, variation, or correlation/association. Then write 2 statements indicating the most important results in each case.

A.

Figure. 1 Car age and stopping distance

Type of finding in Example A: __________________________

Possible statement:____________________________________

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B.

Figure 2: Data plotted from Table 1, atmospheric CO2 measured at Mauna Loa (Keeling & Whorf, 2005).

Type of finding in Example B: __________________________

Possible statement:____________________________________

C.

Table 1. Mean Precision and Relative Recall of search engines during 2004.

Type of finding in Example C: __________________________

Possible statement:____________________________________

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VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR AID

A. RESULTS

Reference to aim/method

To assess X, the Y questionnaire was used.

To distinguish between these two possibilities, ......

To compare the scores three weeks after initial screening, a global

ANOVA F-test was used

In order to assess Z, repeated measures of ANOVA were used.

Regression analysis was used to predict the ......

Changes in X and Y were compared using ......

The average scores of X and Y were compared in order to ......

Nine items on the questionnaire measured the extent to which ......

The correlation between X and Y was tested.

The first set of analyses examined the impact of ......

Simple statistical analysis was used to ......

A scatter diagram and a Pearson's product moment correlation were used

to determine the relationship between…

T-tests were used to analyse the relationship between ......

Comparisons between the two groups were made using unrelated t-tests.

Location and summary statements:

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Highlighting significant data in a table/chart

It is apparent from this table that very few ......

This table is quite revealing in several ways. First, unlike the other

tables......

Data from this table can be compared with the data in Table 4.6 which

shows......

From the data in Figure 9, it is apparent that the length of time left

between......

From this data we can see that Study 2 resulted in the lowest value of ......

The histogram in Fig 1. indicates that ......

What is interesting in this data is that ......

In Fig.10 there is a clear trend of decreasing ......

As Table III shows, there is a significant difference (t = -2.15, p = 0.03)

between the two groups.

Statements of result (positive)

Strong evidence of X was found when ......

This result is significant at the p = 0.05 level.

There was a significant positive correlation between ......

There was a signifcant difference between the two conditions ......

On average, Xs were shown to have ......

The mean score for X was ......

Interestingly, for those subjects with X, ......

A positive correlation was found between X and Y.

The results, as shown in Table 1, indicate that ….

Further analysis showed that ......

Further statistical tests revealed .....

Statements of result (negative)

There was no increase of X associated with .....

There were no significant differences between ......

No significant differences were found between .....

No increase in X was detected.

No difference greater than X was observed.

The Chi-square test did not show any significant differences between ......

None of these differences were statistically significant.

Overall, X did not affect males and females differently in these measure. No significant reduction in X was found with Y compared with placebo. A clear benefit of X in the prevention of Y could not be identified in this

analysis.

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Highlighting significant, interesting or surprising results

The most striking result to emerge from the data is that ......

Interestingly, this correlation is related to .....

The correlation between X and Y is interesting because ......

The more surprising correlation is with the ......

The single most striking observation to emerge from the data comparison

was......

Reporting results from questionnaires and interviews

The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months.

Of the initial cohort of 123 students, 66 were female and 57 male.

Thirty-two individuals returned the questionnaires.

The majority of respondents/those who responded felt that .....

Over half of those surveyed reported that ......

70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ......

Almost two-thirds of the participants (64%) said that ......

Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on ......

A small number of those interviewed suggested that ......

Only a small number of respondents indicated that ......

Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half

indicated that .......

A minority of participants (17%) indicated ......

In response to Question 1, most of those surveyed indicated that ......

The overall response to this question was very positive.

When the subject were asked ......, the majority commented that .....

Other responses to this question included ......

The overall response to this question was poor.

Some participants expressed the belief that …..

One individual stated that …. And another commented …….

Transition statements

Turning now to the experimental evidence on ......

Comparing the two results, it can be seen that ......

A comparison of the two results reveals ......

If we now turn to ......

B. DISCUSSION

Background information (reference to literature or to research aim/question)

A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature. Prior studies that have noted the importance of ......

In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y.

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As mentioned in the literature review, ......

Very little was found in the literature on the question of .....

This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of X in ......

The third question in this research was ......

It was hypothesized that participants with a history of ......

The present study was designed to determine the effect of ......

significant increase in ......

In the current study, comparing X with Y showed that the mean degree

of......

In this study, Xs were found to cause .....

X provided the largest set of significant clusters of ......

It is interesting to note that in all seven cases of this study......

Unexpected outcome

Surprisingly, X was found to .......

Surprisingly, no differences were found in ......

One unanticipated finding was that .....

It is somewhat surprising that no X was noted in this condition ......

What is surprising is that ......

Contrary to expectations, this study did not find a significant difference

between.......

However, the observed difference between X and Y in this study was not

significant.

However, the ANOVA (one way) showed that these results were not

statistically significant.

This finding was unexpected and suggests that ......

Reference to previous research (support)

This study produced results which corroborate the findings of a great deal of the previous work in this field.

The findings of the current study are consistent with those of Smith and Jones (2001) who found ......

This finding supports previous research into this brain area which links X and Y.

This study confirms that X is associated with ......

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This finding corroborates the ideas of Smith and Jones (2008), who

suggested that ......

This finding is in agreement with Smith's (1999) findings which

showed.......

It is encouraging to compare this figure with that found by Jones (1993)

who found that .....

There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by X in this study

and those described by (Smith, 1987, 1995) and Jones (1986)

These findings further support the idea of .....

Increased activation in the PCC in this study corroborates these earlier

findings.

These results are consistent with those of other studies and suggest

that......

The present findings seem to be consistent with other research which

found ......

This also accords with our earlier observations, which showed that ......

Reference to previous research (contradict)

However, the findings of the current study do not support the previous research.

This study has been unable to demonstrate that ......

However, this result has not previously been described.

In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected. Although, these results differ from some published studies (Smith, 1992;

Jones, 1996), they are consistent with those of ......

These results differ from X's 2003 estimate of Y, but they are broadly consistent with earlier .....

Explanations for results:

There are several possible explanations for this result.

These differences can be explained in part by the proximity of X and Y.

A possible explanation for this might be that .....

Another possible explanation for this is that ......

This result may be explained by the fact that ...../ by a number of different

factors.

It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to ......

It seems possible that these results are due to ......

The reason for this is not clear but it may have something to do with ......

It may be that these students benefitted from ......

This inconsistency/discrepancy may be due to ......

This rather contradictory result may be due to ......

These factors may explain the relatively good correlation between X and Y.

There are, however, other possible explanations.

The possible interference of X can not be ruled out.

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The observed increase in X could be attributed to .....

The observed correlation between X and Y might be explained in this

way......

Some authors have speculated that ......

Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due

to......

A possible explanation for some of our results may be the lack of

adequate......

Advising cautious interpretation

These data must be interpreted with caution because ......

These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution.

However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to ......

These findings cannot be extrapolated to all patients.

Although exclusion of X did not reduce the effect on X, these results should be interpreted with caution.

However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to ......

Suggesting general hypotheses

The value of X suggests that a weak link may exist between .....

It is therefore likely that such connections exist between .....

It can thus be suggested that ......

It is possible to hypothesise that these conditions are less likely to occur

in.....

It is possible/likely/probable therefore that ......

Hence, it could conceivably be hypothesised that ......

These findings suggest that .....

It may be the case therefore that these variations ......

In general, therefore, it seems that ......

It is possible, therefore, that ......

Therefore, X could be a major factor, if not the only one, causing ......

It can therefore be assumed that the ......

This finding, while preliminary, suggests that……

Noting implications

This finding has important implications for developing .....

An implication of this is the possibility that ......

One of the issues that emerges from these findings is ......

Some of the issues emerging from this finding relate specifically to ......

This combination of findings provides some support for the conceptual

premise that .....

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Commenting on findings

However, these results were not very encouraging. These findings are rather disappointing.

The test was successful as it was able to identify students who ......

The present results are significant in at least major two respects.

The results of this study do not explain the occurrence of these adverse events.

Limitations of the current study (research)

Finally, a number of important limitations need to be considered. First, ....

A number of caveats need to be noted regarding the present study.

The most important limitation lies in the fact that ......

The current investigation was limited by ......

The current study was unable to analyse these variables.

The current research was not specifically designed to evaluate factors

related to ......

The current study has only examined ......

The project was limited in several ways. First, the project used a

convenience sample that ......

However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the

findings might not be transferable to ......

The sample was nationally representative of X but would tend to miss

people who were .....

A limitation of this study is that the numbers of patients and controls

were relatively small.

Thirdly, the study did not evaluate the use of ......

However, these findings are limited by the use of a cross sectional design.

Our findings in this report are subject to at least three limitations. First,

these data apply only to …..

An issue that was not addressed in this study was whether…..

One source of weakness in this study which could hare affected the

measurements of was that ……

Several limitations to this pilot study need to be acknowledged. The

sample size is ......

The main weakness of this study was the paucity of… …

Suggestions for future work

However, more research on this topic needs to be undertaken before the association between X and Y is more clearly understood.

Further research should be done to investigate the ......

Research questions that could be asked include .....

Future studies on the current topic are therefore recommended. A further study with more focus on X is therefore suggested.

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