!!Экзамен зачет 2023 год / The Law of Obligations

xxxiv

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 19 — ERROR

Page

1.

Error and contractual theory ...........................................

583

(a)

Cotton ex Peerless ......................................................

583

(b) Discrepancy between intention and declaration..

584

(c) Private autonomy and protection of expectations

engendered ..................................................................

584

(d) Will theory and declaration theory ........................

585

2. Basic types of error in Roman law .................................

587

(a)

Vcrba and voluntas ...................................................

587

(b)

Determination of the object of performance . . . .

588

(c)

Ulp. D. 18, 1, 9 pr. and error in corpore .............

589

(d)

Error in pretio............................................................

590

(e)

Error in negotio .........................................................

591

(f)

Error in persona ........................................................

592

3. The problem of error in substantia ...............................

592

(a) Ulp. D. 18, 1, 9, 2 ....................................................

592

(b)

Error relating to quality ...........................................

593

(c)

Drawing the line: vinegar sold as wine .................

594

(d)

Further borderline cases ...........................................

595

4.

Common mistake ..............................................................

596

5. Error in motive and error in nomine..............................

597

6. Common error in nomine ................................................

598

7. Will-orientation, mistake and the formal transactions

598

(a)

Testaments..................................................................

598

(b)

Stipulations .................................................................

599

8. Error and the protection of the promisee ......................

600

(a) Modern approaches: English law and German law

600

(b) The position in Roman law ....................................

602

9. Iuris ignorantia nocet, facti ignorantia non nocet . . . .

604

(a) Error iuris nocet: the position in Roman law . ..

604

(b) Error vincibilis and invincibilis (ius commune). .

606

(c) Error iuris (ius commune and modern law) ..........

608

10. The development of the modern error doctrine ..........

609

(a)

Usus modernus pandectarum ..................................

609

(b)

Error in persona ........................................................

611

(c)

The contribution of the natural lawyers ...............

612

(d)

Error in Savigny's System and under the BGB . .

614

(e)

Error in substantia ....................................................

616

(f) Developments in French and English law..............

618

CHA P TE R 20 — INTERPRETATION OF CONTR ACTS

I.

French Francs and Belgian Francs (Introduction) . . . .

621

II.

Rom an L aw .............................................................................

622

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xxxv

Page

1.

From verba to voluntas ...............................................

622

(a)

Pre-classical Roman law.......................................

622

(b)

Post-classical jurisprudence ..................................

624

(c) "Voluntas in primis spectanda cst" .....................

625

2. The position in classical Roman law...........................

625

(a)

Verba or voluntas? ...............................................

625

(b)

Flexibility ..............................................................

626

(c) The causa Curiana: the case before the court. . ..

628

(A) The causa Curiana: jurists and orators ................

630

(e)

The "individualizing" approach ..........................

632

(f)

Id quod actum est.................................................

633

(g)

Excursus: the animus novandi..............................

634

III. Post-reception Developments........................................

635

1.

The older ius commune ..............................................

635

2.

True intention and justifiable reliance.........................

636

3. Rules of interpretation: in general ...............................

637

4. Rules of interpretation: the contra proferentcm rule .

639

(a) Interpretatio contra eum qui clarius loqui

debuisset ...............................................................

639

(b) The contra proferentem rule in medieval and in

modern law...........................................................

640

IV. Special Problem Situations .............................................

643

1. §§ 116, 117, 118, 122 BGB ......................................

643

2.

Lack of seriousness ......................................................

644

3.

Reservatio mentalis.......................................................

644

(a)

Roman law ...........................................................

644

(b) Pandectists and canon lawyers ............................

644

4.

Simulatio .......................................................................

646

(a)

Roman law ..........................................................

646

(b) Ius commune; simulatio and fraus legis ...............

648

CHAPTER 21 — METUS AND DOLUS

I. Metus ...................................................................................

651

1.

Historical background ..................................................

651

2. Coactus volui, tamen volui ..........................................

652

3. "Quod metus causa gestum erit, ratum non habeo"

653

4. The meaning of metus causa .......................................

654

5.

The remedies.................................................................

654

(a) The actio quod metus causa .................................

654

(b)

In integrum restitutio? ..........................................

656

(c)

Exceptio.................................................................

657

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Page

6. The position under the ius commune ........................

658

(a)

The relief for metus and its limits ......................

658

(b)

Effect of metus on the contract ...........................

660

(c)

Specific characteristics of the remedies for metus

661

II.

Dolus ..................................................................................

662

1. The remedies for dolus and metus compared .............

662

2.

The concept of dolus...................................................

664

(a)

Aliud simulare, aliud agerc..................................

664

(b)

Lab. D. 4, 3, 1, 2.................................................

665

(c)

Fidem placiti rumpere...........................................

667

(d)

Bona fides and dolus ...........................................

667

(e)

Dolus and dolus malus .........................................

668

(f)

Dolus and sollertia ..............................................

669

3.

Dolus causam dans and dolus incidens........................

670

(a)

The medieval distinction ......................................

670

(b)

Usus modernus and pandectists ...........................

671

(c)

Modern law..........................................................

672

CHAPTER 22 — INVALIDITY AND REASONS FOR

INVALIDITY

I.

Invalidity ............................................................................

?7g

1.

Terminological and conceptual problems ....................

678

(a)

The black cat which was not there ......................

678

(b)

"Invalidity" according to the ius civile ...............

679

(c)

Ius honorarium......................................................

680

(d)

Classical and justinianic law..................................

680

(e)

Pandectist doctrine................................................

681

2.

Convalescence; partial invalidity..................................

682

3.

Conversion....................................................................

683

(a)

Traductio unius negotii in alterum (ius com

(b)

mune) ...................................................................

683

Conversion in Roman law?..................................

684

(c) Paul. D. 38, 1, 39 pr.............................................

686

II.

Initial Impossibility ..........................................................

686

1.

Impossibilium nulla obligatio est ................................

686

2.

The concept of impossibility .......................................

687

3.

Initial impossibility of stipulations ..............................

689

4. Initial impossibility and contracts of sale ....................

690

5. Impossibilium nulla obligatio est under the (earlier)

ius commune ................................................................

691

6.

The approach of the natural lawyers ...........................

692

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xxxvii

1.

Page

Pandectist doctrine ............................................................

693

8.

Recovery of damages ........................................................

694

9.

§§ 306 sq. BGB: evaluation .............................................

695

III.

Illegality.....................................................................................

697

1.

The possible effects of illegality.......................................

697

(a) Subdivision of statutes according to their sanctio

697

(b)

Leges minus quam perfectae ...................................

698

(c)

Leges imperfectae ......................................................

699

(d)

Leges perfectae...........................................................

700

(e) The lex Non dubium and § 134 BGB ...................

701

2.

Transactions in fraudem legis ..........................................

702

(a)

In fraudem legis agerc ..............................................

702

(b)

Republican jurisprudence .........................................

703

(c)

Scire leges non est verba earum tcnere ..................

704

IV. Im m orality ...............................................................................

706

1.

Freedom of contract and extra-legal standards..............

706

2.

References to the boni mores in classical law ...............

707

3.

Conditions contra bonos mores and late classical

jurisprudence ......................................................................

709

4.

The effects of immorality .................................................

710

5.

The content of the boni mores ........................................

711

6.

The boni mores and the ius commune ..........................

712

7.

Reference to the boni mores in modern law ..................

713

C HAPTE R 23 — CONDICIO AND DIES

I.

Introduction .............................................................................

716

1.

The dynamic nature of Western contract law ...............

716

2.

Conditions in general .......................................................

717

II.

Condicio Suspensiva ..............................................................

718

1. The nature of suspensive conditions..............................

718

2.

Impossible, illegal and immoral conditions ..................

719

3.

Casus perplexus .................................................................

721

4. Condiciones casuales and potestativae ...........................

722

5.

Positive and negative conditions ....................................

722

6.

Condicio pendet ................................................................

723

(a) "Non est pro eo, quasi sit" ....................................

724

(b)

The spes debitum in.................................................

725

7.

The effect of satisfaction of the condition ....................

726

(a)

Operation ex nunc....................................................

726

(b)

Retroactive effect ......................................................

726

(c)

Modern interpretation..............................................

727

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Table of Contents

Page

8.

Interpretation of conditions ..............................................

728

(a)

General considerations..............................................

728

(b)

Interpretatio in favorem libertatis ...........................

729

(c)

Condition prevented from materializing...............

730

III. Resolutive Conditions ...........................................................

731

1. The construction of resolutive conditions ....................

731

2.

The admissibility of resolutive conditions ....................

732

3.

The effects of resolutive conditions ...............................

733

IV. Provisions for Calling Off a Sale .......................................

735

1.

In diem addictio.................................................................

735

(a)

Functions.....................................................................

735

(b)

Construction ..............................................................

736

(c)

Interpretation ............................................................

736

2.

Lex commissoria ...............................................................

737

3.

Pactum displicentiae ..........................................................

739

(a)

Function ......................................................................

739

(b)

Construction ..............................................................

740

V.

Dies

..............................................................................................

741

1.

Dies certus and dies incertus quando .............................

741

2.

Dies ad quern .....................................................................

741

3.

Dies a quo ...........................................................................

742

4.

Navis ex Asia .....................................................................

742

VI. Usus Hodiernus .......................................................................

743

C HAPTER 24 — TERMINATION OF OBLIGATIONS

I.

Solutio ........................................................................................

748

1.

Praestatio eius quod debetur ...........................................

748

2.

Unum debitum ex pluribus causis..................................

750

3.

Time and place of performance.......................................

750

4.

Performance rendered by third parties/to third parties

752

5.

Datio in solutum ...............................................................

753

II.

Release........................................................................................

754

1.

Solutio per aes et libram and acceptilatio

as actus

contrarii................................................................................

754

2.

The rise of informal solutio ............................................

755

3.

Formal release by way of solutio per aes et libram and

acceptilatio...........................................................................

756

4.

Excursus: the stipulatio Aquiliana....................................

757

5.

Informal release ..................................................................

757

III. Other Form s of "Solutio Im propria" ..............................

753

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xxxix

IV. Compensatio

Page

760

1. Set-off in modern law ..................................................

760

2.

The procedural framework for set-off in Roman law

761

(a)

Iudicia bonae fidei.................................................

761

(b)

Actiones stricti iuris..............................................

762

(c) Special kinds of set-off: argentarius and bonorum

emptor...................................................................

764

3.

Towards a generalized form of set-off .......................

765

(a)

Assimilation ..........................................................

765

(b) Set-off in the Corpus Juris Civilis .......................

767

V.

Extinctive Prescription....................................................

767

VI. Excursus: The Problem of Specific Performance . . . .

770

1.

Condemnation or absolution.......................................

770

2.

Omnis condemnatio pecuniaria...................................

771

3.

Condemnatio pecuniaria and specific performance

under Justinian..............................................................

772

4.

The distinctions of the ius commune ..........................

773

5.

Roman-Dutch law; modern German law ....................

774

6.

Specific performance in English law ...........................

776

(a)

The concept of contract ......................................

776

(b)

The rise of assumpsit............................................

777

(c)

Common-law remedy and equitable relief ..........

779

(d)

The position today ...............................................

780

7.

Specific performance in South African law.................

781

CHAPTER 25 — BREACH OF CONTRACT

I.

Breach of Contract in General.......................................

783

1.

Introduction .................................................................

783

2.

Certam rem dare obligations .......................................

783

(a)

Supervening impossibility ....................................

783

(b)

Perpetuatio obligations........................................

784

(c)

Culpa.....................................................................

785

(d)

Mora debitoris ......................................................

787

(e) Deterioration of the object promised ..................

787

3. Other types of obligations stricti iuris ........................

787

4.

Actions with a formula incerta ...................................

788

II.

Mora Debitoris ..................................................................

790

1.

Consequences of mora debitoris in Roman law..........

790

2. Requirements of mora debitoris in Roman law ..........

791

(a)

In general ..............................................................

791

(b)

Mora ex persona...................................................

791

(c)

The role of interpellatio........................................

792

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Page

3.

Requirements of mora debitoris (ius commune) ........

793

(a)

The role of culpa...................................................

793

(b)

Impossibility and difficultas praestationis ............

794

(c)

Interpellatio and mora ex persona ........................

795

(d)

Interpellatio and litis contestatio ...........................

796

(c)

Mora ex re.............................................................

797

4.

Consequences of mora debitoris (ius commune) .........

799

III. Rescission as a Remedy for Breach of Contract ...........

800

1. The "iron" rule of Roman law and the notion of an

implied lex commissoria ..............................................

800

2.

The notion of an implied condition (natural law). . . .

803

3.

Condition and warranty in English law......................

803

4.

Condition, lex commissoria and rescission in South

African law ...................................................................

804

IV. Impossibility of Performance and Breach of

Contract ..............................................................................

806

1.

Breach of contract in Roman law................................

806

2.

Breach of contract under the ius commune .................

807

3.

The notion of impossibility under the ius commune

809

4.

Friedrich Mommsen's impossibility doctrine .............

809

5.

Supervening impossibility in modern German law...

810

6.

Breach of contract in German law ..............................

813

7.

Breach of contract in English law ...............................

814

V. Mora Creditoris .................................................................

817

1.

Mora creditoris, mora debitoris and breach of

contract .........................................................................

817

2.

Mora creditoris in modern German law ......................

818

3.

Requirements of mora creditoris in Roman law.........

819

4.

Consequences of mora creditoris in Roman law ........

820

(a)

Alleviation of liability...........................................

820

(b)

Obsignatio and depositio .....................................

821

(c)

Recovery of expenses and damages ......................

821

(d)

Purgatio morac .....................................................

823

VI. Quod Interest, Damages and Breach of Contract . . . .

824

1.

Restoration, damages and "Diffemiztheorie" ...............

824

2.

Omnis condemnatio pecuniaria...................................

825

3.

Id quod interest ............................................................

826

4. The Lex Sancimus (C. 7, 47, 1) .................................

828

5. Foreseeability and contemplation test..........................

829

(a) Molinaeus, Pothier and the code civil ..................

829

(b)

Hadley v. Baxendale...............................................

830

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xli

6. Interessc circa rem and extra rem

Page

830

7.

"Mare amplissimum, in quo pauci sine penculo

navigarunt"

.................................................................

833

CHAPTER 26 — UNJUSTIFIED ENRICHMENT

I. Condictio ............................................................................

834

1.

Indebitum solutum.......................................................

834

2.

"Si paret . . . ......................................

dare oportere"

835

3. Indebitum solutum .........and unjustified enrichment

837

II. The Condictiones .................................in Roman Law

838

1.

The

typology of condictiones: classical or post-

classical? ........................................................................

838

2.

Condictio ex ...........................................causa furtiva

839

3.

Enrichment ................................................by transfer

841

(a)

Transfer .........................................solvendi causa

841

(b)

Executed ............................................transactions

842

(c)

Transfer .........................................credendi causa

842

(d)

Datio ob ........................................................rem

842

4.

Condictio causa ........................data causa non secuta

843

5.

Condictio ob ...............turpem (vel iniustam) causam

844

(a)

Turpitudo ...........................accipientis dumtaxat

844

(b)

Turpitudo ..............................................utriusque

846

(c)

Turpitudo .........................................solius dantis

847

6.

Condictio indebiti.........................................................

848

(a)

Indebitum ................................................solutum

848

(b)

Solutio ...............................................per errorcm

849

7.

Miscellaneous .......................................................cases

851

(a)

Pomponius' .........................enrichment principle

851

(b)

Retinere ...............................................sine causa

854

(c) Condictio ob causam finitam and condictio

(d)

liberationis.............................................................

855

Condictio .............................................sine causa

856

III. The Subsequent .....................Fate of the Condictiones

857

1.

Condictio causa ........................data causa non secuta

857

(a)

Ius poenitentiae .....................................................

857

(b)

Condictio ....................ratione cessationis causae

858

(c) Periculum debitoris and conditional synallagma

859

(d) "Hodie .........................[haec| condictio rara est"

860

2. Condictio ob .................turpem vel iniustam causam

862

3. In pari turpitudine ..........causa est mclior possidentis

863

(a) Extension . .of the rule in modern German law .

863

(b)

"Sinister" .....................and "disastrous" results

864

(c)

The approach adopted by the South African

courts.....................................................................

865

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Page

4.

Condictio indebiti ........................................................

866

(a) Function and range of application........................

866

(b) The error requirement: sentcntia Papiniani ..........

868

(c) Error iuris nocet, error facti non nocet ...............

869

(A)

Ignorantia vincibilis and invincibilis ....................

869

5.

Condictio sine causa.....................................................

871

(a)

Condictio sine causa specialis ...............................

871

(b)

Condictio sine causa generalis ..............................

872

IV. Enrichment Liability Outside the Condictiones.........

873

1.

Aequitas naturalis and the lex Si et me et Titium . . . .

873

2.

The actio negotiorum gestorum (contraria) as enrich

ment action ...................................................................

875

(a)

Mala fide administration of another's affairs . . . .

875

(b) Afr. D. 3, 5, 48 ....................................................

877

3.

The actio de in rem verso............................................

878

(a) The Roman actio de in rem verso .......................

878

(b)

Actio utilis de in rem verso .................................

879

(c)

С 4, 26, 7, 3 and third - party enrichment ............

880

(d)

Versio in rem and two - party relationships ..........

881

(e)

The actio de in rem verso in the natural - law

codifications ..........................................................

883

4.

The general enrichment action that was .....................

885

(a)

Grotius and Huber ................................................

885

(b)

South African law .................................................

886

V. Enrichment Remedies in Modern Law .........................

887

1.

German law ..................................................................

887

(a) The general enrichment action of the BGB ........

887

(b)

The Wilburg/von Caemmerer typology .............

889

2.

English law...................................................................

891

(a) The basic options for the legal system................

891

(b)

Rearing the backward child .................................

892

VI. The Measure of Enrichment Liability ...........................

895

1.

The

"weakness" of enrichment claims in German

law

................................................................................

895

2. Instances ...of "weak" enrichment liability in Rome

896

3. Liability ............of the defendant under the condictio

897

4.

Condictio ............................................................pretii

898

5. The ........regime of the ius commune: all or nothing

899

6.

The .................change of opinion in the 19th century

900

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Page

CHAPTER 27 — DELICT IN GENERAL

1.

Delict and crime ...........................................................

902

2.

Delict and contract .......................................................

902

(a) Death of contract, death of delict?........................

902

(b) Exclusivity of alternativity of remedies?..............

904

3.

Delict and tort ..............................................................

907

4. The development of the law of torts...........................

908

(a) Trespass and the rise of "case" ............................

908

(b) The distinction between trespass and "case" . . . .

909

(c) The rise of the tort of "negligence".....................

910

(d) The ghosts of the past...........................................

911

5. Roman law and English law.........................................

913

6. The origins of delict in Roman law.............................

914

7. Characteristics of the Roman actiones poenales ..........

915

(a)

Passive intransmissibility ......................................

915

(b)

Noxal liability .......................................................

916

8. Private criminal law and public criminal law..............

917

9. The nature of the remedies available...........................

918

(a)

Actiones poenales and reipersecutoriae ................

918

(b)

Actiones mixtae ....................................................

919

(c)

Concurrence of actions .........................................

920

10.

Plan of treatment .........................................................

921

CHAPTER 28 — FURTUM

I. The Roman Concept of Furtum .....................................

922

1. The definition of D. 47, 2, 1, 3...................................

922

2.

D.

47, 2, 1, 3 and the modern German concept

compared ......................................................................

923

3. D. 47, 2, 1, 3 and the Roman case law.......................

924

(a) Of mule drivers, peacocks, weights and spread

out togas ...............................................................

924

(b)

The nature of Roman definitions.........................

925

(c)

Furtum in ancient law ..........................................

927

(d) Developments in Republican and classical Roman

law.........................................................................

928

4.

Complicity in theft.......................................................

930

II. The Actions Arising from Theft ...................................

932

1.

Actio furti nee manifesti...............................................

932

(a) "Quanti es res fuit, duplum" ..............................

932

(b) The right to sue: ex iure dominii and custodia

liability ..................................................................

933

(c) The right to sue: emptio venditio and miscella

neous other cases ..................................................

935