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Ташкентский государственный технический университет им. Беруни

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Автоматизированные системы управления технологическим процессом

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Instrumentation Sensors Book

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GLOBAL AUTOMATION TUTORIALS

Introduction to Instrumentation, Sensors, and Process Control

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FOR FREE MAGAZINES AND WHITEPAPERS, VISIT

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For a listing of related titles from Artech House, turn to the back of this book

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Introduction to Instrumentation, Sensors, and Process Control

William C. Dunn

a r t e c h h o u s e . c o m

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dunn, William C.

Introduction to instrumentation, sensors, and process control/William C. Dunn. p. cm. —(Artech House Sensors library)

ISBN 1-58053-011-7 (alk. paper)

1. Process control. 2. Detectors. I. Title. II. Series.

TS156.8.D86 2005
670.42'7—dc22	2005050832

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Dunn, William C.

Introduction to instrumentation, sensors, and process control. —(Artech House sensors library)

1. Engineering instruments 2. Electronic instruments 3. Process control I. Title

681.2

ISBN-10: 1-58053-011-7

Cover design by Cameron Inc.

685 Canton Street

Norwood, MA 02062

All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.

International Standard Book Number: 1-58053-011-7

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Preface			xv
Acknowledgment			xvi

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Process Control			1
1.1	Introduction		1
1.2	Process Control		1
	1.2.1	Sequential Process Control	2
	1.2.2	Continuous Process Control	2
1.3	Definition of the Elements in a Control Loop		4
1.4	Instrumentation and Sensors		5
	1.4.1	Instrument Parameters	5
1.5	Control System Evaluation		9
	1.5.1	Stability	9
	1.5.2	Regulation	9
	1.5.3	Transient Response	9
1.6	Analog and Digital Data		10
	1.6.1	Analog Data	10
	1.6.2	Digital Data	10
	1.6.3	Pneumatic Data	10
	1.6.4	Smart Sensors	11
1.7	Process Facility Considerations		11
1.8	Summary		12
	Definitions		12
	References		14

CHAPTER 2
Units and Standards			15
2.1	Introduction		15
	2.1.1	Units and Standards	15
2.2	Basic Units		16
2.3	Units Derived from Base Units		16
	2.3.1 Units Common to Both the English and SI Systems		16
	2.3.2 English Units Derived from Base Units		16
	2.3.3 SI Units Derived from Base Units		18
	2.3.4 Conversion Between English and SI Units		18

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vi				Contents
		2.3.5 Metric Units not Normally Used in the SI System		20
2.4		Standard Prefixes		21
2.5		Standards		22
		2.5.1	Physical Constants	22
		2.5.2	Standards Institutions	22
2.6		Summary		23
		References		23

	CHAPTER 3
	Basic Electrical Components			25
3.1		Introduction		25
3.2		Circuits with R, L, and C		25
		3.2.1	Voltage Step Input	25
		3.2.2	Time Constants	27
		3.2.3	Sine Wave Inputs	28
3.3		RC Filters		32
3.4		Bridge Circuits		34
		3.4.1	Voltage Dividers	34
		3.4.2	dc Bridge Circuits	34
		3.4.3	ac Bridge Circuits	38
3.5		Summary		39
		References		40

	CHAPTER 4
	Analog Electronics			41
4.1		Introduction		41
4.2		Analog Circuits		41
		4.2.1	Operational Amplifier Introduction	41
		4.2.2	Basic Op-Amp	42
		4.2.3	Op-Amp Characteristics	42
4.3		Types of Amplifiers		45
		4.3.1	Voltage Amplifiers	45
		4.3.2	Converters	50
		4.3.3	Current Amplifiers	52
		4.3.4 Integrating and Differentiating Amplifiers		53
		4.3.5	Nonlinear Amplifiers	54
		4.3.6	Instrument Amplifiers	55
		4.3.7	Input Protection	57
4.4		Amplifier Applications		57
4.5		Summary		58
		References		58

	CHAPTER 5
	Digital Electronics			59
5.1		Introduction		59
5.2		Digital Building Blocks		59
5.3		Converters		61

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Contents				vii
		5.3.1	Comparators	62
		5.3.2 Digital to Analog Converters		64
		5.3.3 Analog to Digital Converters		68
		5.3.4	Sample and Hold	72
		5.3.5 Voltage to Frequency Converters		72
5.4		Data Acquisition Devices		74
		5.4.1	Analog Multiplexers	74
		5.4.2	Digital Multiplexers	74
		5.4.3	Programmable Logic Arrays	75
		5.4.4	Other Interface Devices	75
5.5		Basic Processor		75
5.6		Summary		76
		References		77

	CHAPTER 6
	Microelectromechanical Devices and Smart Sensors			79
6.1		Introduction		79
6.2		Basic Sensors		80
		6.2.1	Temperature Sensing	80
		6.2.2	Light Intensity	80
		6.2.3	Strain Gauges	81
		6.2.4	Magnetic Field Sensors	82
6.3		Piezoelectric Devices		84
		6.3.1	Time Measurements	86
		6.3.2	Piezoelectric Sensors	87
		6.3.3	PZT Actuators	88
6.4		Microelectromechanical Devices		88
		6.4.1	Bulk Micromachining	89
		6.4.2	Surface Micromachining	91
6.5		Smart Sensors Introduction		94
		6.5.1	Distributed System	95
		6.5.2	Smart Sensors	96
6.6		Summary		96
		References		97

	CHAPTER 7
	Pressure			99
7.1		Introduction		99
7.2		Pressure Measurement		99
		7.2.1	Hydrostatic Pressure	99
		7.2.2	Specific Gravity	100
		7.2.3	Units of Measurement	101
		7.2.4	Buoyancy	103
7.3		Measuring Instruments		105
		7.3.1	Manometers	105
		7.3.2 Diaphragms, Capsules, and Bellows		106
		7.3.3	Bourdon Tubes	108

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viii				Contents
		7.3.4	Other Pressure Sensors	109
		7.3.5	Vacuum Instruments	110
7.4		Application Considerations		111
		7.4.1	Selection	111
		7.4.2	Installation	112
		7.4.3	Calibration	112
7.5		Summary		113
		Definitions		113
		References		114

	CHAPTER 8
	Level			115
8.1		Introduction		115
8.2		Level Measurement		115
		8.2.1	Direct Level Sensing	115
		8.2.2	Indirect Level Sensing	118
		8.2.3	Single Point Sensing	124
		8.2.4 Level Sensing of Free-Flowing Solids		125
8.3		Application Considerations		126
8.4		Summary		128
		References		128

	CHAPTER 9
	Flow			129
9.1		Introduction		129
9.2		Fluid Flow		129
		9.2.1	Flow Patterns	129
		9.2.2	Continuity Equation	131
		9.2.3	Bernoulli Equation	132
		9.2.4	Flow Losses	134
9.3		Flow Measuring Instruments		136
		9.3.1	Flow Rate	136
		9.3.2	Total Flow	142
		9.3.3	Mass Flow	144
		9.3.4 Dry Particulate Flow Rate		144
		9.3.5	Open Channel Flow	145
9.4		Application Considerations		145
		9.4.1	Selection	145
		9.4.2	Installation	147
		9.4.3	Calibration	147
9.5		Summary		147
		Definitions		148
		References		148

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Contents				ix

	CHAPTER 10
	Temperature and Heat			149
10.1		Introduction		149
10.2		Temperature and Heat		149
		10.2.1	Temperature Units	149
		10.2.2	Heat Energy	151
		10.2.3	Heat Transfer	153
		10.2.4	Thermal Expansion	155
10.3		Temperature Measuring Devices		157
		10.3.1	Expansion Thermometers	157
		10.3.2	Resistance Temperature Devices	160
		10.3.3	Thermistors	161
		10.3.4	Thermocouples	162
		10.3.5	Pyrometers	164
		10.3.6	Semiconductor Devices	165
10.4		Application Considerations		166
		10.4.1	Selection	166
		10.4.2	Range and Accuracy	166
		10.4.3	Thermal Time Constant	167
		10.4.4	Installation	168
		10.4.5	Calibration	168
		10.4.6	Protection	168
10.5		Summary		169
		Definitions		169
		References		170

	CHAPTER 11
	Position, Force, and Light			171
11.1		Introduction		171
11.2		Position and Motion Sensing		171
		11.2.1 Position and Motion Measuring Devices		171
		11.2.2	Position Application Considerations	176
11.3		Force, Torque, and Load Cells		177
		11.3.1 Force and Torque Introduction		178
		11.3.2	Stress and Strain	178
		11.3.3 Force and Torque Measuring Devices		181
		11.3.4	Strain Gauge Sensors	183
		11.3.5 Force and Torque Application Considerations		186
11.4		Light		186
		11.4.1	Light Introduction	186
		11.4.2	EM Radiation	186
		11.4.3	Light Measuring Devices	188
		11.4.4	Light Sources	188
		11.4.5	Light Application Considerations	189
11.5		Summary		190
		Definitions		190
		References		191

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x				Contents

	CHAPTER 12
	Humidity and Other Sensors			193
12.1		Humidity		193
		12.1.1	Humidity Introduction	193
		12.1.2	Humidity Measuring Devices	194
		12.1.3	Humidity Application Considerations	197
12.2		Density and Specific Gravity		198
		12.2.1	Density and Specific Gravity Introduction	198
		12.2.2	Density Measuring Devices	199
		12.2.3	Density Application Considerations	202
12.3		Viscosity		202
		12.3.1	Viscosity Introduction	202
		12.3.2	Viscosity Measuring Instruments	203
12.4		Sound		204
		12.4.1	Sound Measurements	204
		12.4.2	Sound Measuring Devices	205
		12.4.3	Sound Application Considerations	206
12.5		pH Measurements		206
		12.5.1	pH Introduction	206
		12.5.2	pH Measuring Devices	207
		12.5.3	pH Application Considerations	207
12.6		Smoke and Chemical Sensors		208
		12.6.1	Smoke and Chemical Measuring Devices	208
		12.6.2	Smoke and Chemical Application Consideration	208
12.7		Summary		209
		Definitions		209
		References		210

	CHAPTER 13
	Regulators, Valves, and Motors			211
13.1		Introduction		211
13.2		Pressure Controllers		211
		13.2.1	Pressure Regulators	211
		13.2.2	Safety Valves	213
		13.2.3	Level Regulators	214
13.3		Flow Control Valves		215
		13.3.1	Globe Valve	215
		13.3.2	Butterfly Valve	217
		13.3.3	Other Valve Types	218
		13.3.4	Valve Characteristics	219
		13.3.5	Valve Fail Safe	219
		13.3.6	Actuators	220
13.4		Power Control		221
		13.4.1	Electronic Devices	222
		13.4.2	Magnetic Control Devices	227
13.5		Motors		227
		13.5.1	Servo Motors	228

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Instrumentation Sensors Book

Contents