- •Textbook Series
- •Contents
- •Introduction
- •1 ICAO Annex 6
- •Introduction
- •Compliance with the Law
- •Operational Control
- •Safety
- •Alternate Aerodromes
- •Flight time
- •Flight Safety and Accident Prevention
- •Maintenance Release
- •Lighting of Aircraft
- •Navigation Lights
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •2 EU-OPS General Requirements
- •Applicability
- •Common Language
- •Quality System
- •Accident Prevention and Flight Safety Programme
- •Additional Crew Members
- •Ditching
- •Carriage of Persons
- •Crew Responsibilities
- •Responsibilities of the Commander
- •Authority of the Commander
- •Admission to the Flight Deck
- •Unauthorized Carriage
- •Portable Electronic Devices
- •Drugs and Alcohol
- •Endangering Safety
- •Documents to Be Carried
- •Manuals to Be Carried
- •Additional Information and Forms to Be Carried
- •Information to Be Retained on the Ground
- •Power to Inspect
- •Production and Preservation of Documents and Recordings
- •Leasing of Aeroplanes
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •3 Operator Supervision and Certification
- •Rules for the Certification of an Air Operator
- •Applicant Requirements
- •Aeroplane Maintenance
- •Variation, Revocation or Suspension of an AOC
- •Key Post Holders within the Operation
- •Main Operating Base
- •Aeroplanes
- •Other Considerations
- •Contents and Conditions of an AOC
- •Terminology
- •Operations Manual (OM)
- •General Rules for Operations Manuals
- •Ops Manual Amendments
- •Competence of Operations Personnel
- •Aeroplane Maintenance
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •4 Operational Procedures
- •Establishment of Procedures
- •Use of Air Traffic Control
- •Authorization and Selection of Aerodromes by the Operator
- •Meteorological Conditions
- •Approach and Landing Conditions
- •Aerodrome Operating Minima (AOM)
- •Commencement and Continuation of Approach
- •Instrument Departure and Approach Procedures
- •Noise Abatement Procedures
- •Routes and Areas of Operation
- •RVSM Operations
- •Operations in MNPS Airspace
- •Maximum Distance from an Adequate Aerodrome for Two-engine Aeroplanes without an ETOPS Approval
- •Extended Range Operations with Twin-engine Aeroplanes (ETOPS)
- •Establishment of Minimum Flight Altitudes
- •Fuel Policy
- •Carriage of Persons with Reduced Mobility (PRMs)
- •Carriage of Inadmissible Passengers, Deportees or Persons in Custody
- •Stowage of Baggage and Cargo and Galley Equipment
- •Passenger Seating
- •Passenger Briefing
- •Flight Preparation
- •ATS Flight Plan
- •Refuelling and De-fuelling
- •Crew Members at Duty Stations
- •Seats, Safety Belts and Harnesses
- •Smoking
- •Ice and Other Contaminants
- •Use of Supplemental Oxygen
- •Ground Proximity Detection
- •Occurrence Reporting
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •5 All Weather Operations
- •Introduction
- •Aerodrome Operating Minima: Operator’s Responsibility
- •Classification of Aeroplanes
- •Terminology
- •Take-off Minima
- •Visual Reference
- •Required RVR/Visibility
- •Figure 5.2 Exceptions
- •System Minima
- •Non-precision Approach
- •Minimum Descent Height
- •Visual Reference
- •Required RVR
- •No Decision Height Operations
- •Visual Reference
- •Category III RVR Requirements
- •Circling
- •Visual Approach
- •VFR Operating Minima
- •Special VFR
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •6 Aeroplane Equipment and Instruments
- •Introduction
- •Basic Requirements
- •Internal Doors and Curtains
- •First Aid Kits
- •First Aid Oxygen
- •Break-in Markings
- •Means of Emergency Evacuation
- •Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVRs)
- •Summary
- •CVRs – Operation, Construction and Installation
- •Flight Data Recorders (FDRs)
- •Summary
- •Equipment for Compliance with Flight Rules
- •Single-pilot IFR Operations
- •Altitude Alerting System
- •Standby Horizon
- •Aeroplane Lighting
- •Flights over Water
- •Long Range Flights
- •Weather Radar
- •Equipment for Operations in Icing Conditions
- •Machmeter
- •ACAS
- •Communications Equipment
- •Internal Communications
- •Audio Selector Panel (ASP)
- •Navigation Equipment
- •Instrument Procedures
- •Installation
- •Electrical Circuit Fusing
- •Windshield Wipers
- •Items not Requiring Approval
- •Seats and Harnesses
- •‘Fasten Seat Belts’ and ‘No Smoking’ Signs
- •Carriage and Use of Supplemental Oxygen
- •Crew Protective Breathing Equipment (PBE)
- •Crash Axes and Crowbars
- •Megaphones
- •Emergency Lighting
- •Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)
- •Survival Equipment
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •7 Crew, Logs and Records
- •Crew Composition
- •Commander
- •Relief of the Commander
- •Relief of the Co-pilot
- •System Panel Operator
- •Relief of System Panel Operator
- •Minimum Flight Crew for Operations under IFR or at Night
- •Conversion, Training and Checking
- •Type Rating
- •Conversion Training
- •Difference and Familiarization Training
- •Recurrent Training and Checking
- •Operator Proficiency Check
- •Line Checks
- •Emergency and Safety Equipment Training and Checking
- •Crew Resource Management (CRM) Training
- •Ground and Refresher Training
- •Aeroplane/STD Training
- •Pilot Qualifications to Operate in Either Pilot Seat
- •Recent Experience
- •Route and Aerodrome Qualification for Commander or PF
- •Operations on More Than One Type or Variant
- •Operation of Aeroplanes and Helicopters
- •Training Records
- •Cabin Crew
- •Journey Log
- •Operational Flight Plan (OFP)
- •Storage Periods
- •Flight and Duty Time Limitations
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •8 Long Range Flight and Polar Navigation
- •Navigation System Degradation
- •Course and INS Cross-checking
- •Unable to Continue in Accordance with ATC Clearance
- •Polar Navigation
- •Grid Navigation
- •Minimum Time Routes
- •Questions
- •Answers.
- •Introduction
- •Considerations
- •References
- •Transoceanic Navigation Problems
- •The Airspace
- •MNPS Authority
- •RVSM
- •Navigation System Requirements
- •Navigation System Serviceability
- •NAT Tracks
- •OTS Track Designation
- •OTS Changeover
- •Track Message Identifier (TMI)
- •Track Routings
- •Allocation of FLs
- •Domestic Routes
- •Polar Track Structure (PTS)
- •Other Routes within NAT MNPS Airspace
- •Route Structures Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace
- •Brest Oceanic Transition Area (BOTA)
- •Communications
- •SELCAL
- •Position Reports
- •Radio Failure in the North Atlantic Area
- •Initial Clearance
- •Transition
- •Meteorological Reports
- •Special Contingencies and Procedures
- •Strategic Lateral Offset Procedure (SLOP)
- •Deviation Around Severe Weather
- •Unable to Obtain Revised Clearance
- •Navigation System Failure
- •Errors Associated with Oceanic Clearances
- •Pre-flight and In-flight Procedures
- •Questions
- •Answers.
- •10 Special Operational Procedures and Hazards
- •Operating Procedures
- •Minimum Equipment List (MEL) and Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)
- •Ground De-icing and Anti-icing Procedures
- •The Clean Aircraft Concept
- •Bird Strike Risk and Avoidance
- •Hazard to Aeroplanes
- •Bird Strike Report
- •Incompatible Land Use around Airports
- •Noise Abatement
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •11 Fire and Smoke
- •Fire and Smoke
- •Fire in the Aeroplane
- •The Number and Location of Hand-held Fire Extinguishers
- •Smoke
- •Crew Protective Breathing Equipment (PBE)
- •Crash Axes and Crowbars
- •Overheated Brakes
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •12 Pressurization Failure
- •Pressurization Failure
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •13 Windshear and Microburst
- •Windshear and Microburst
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •14 Wake Turbulence
- •Wake Turbulence
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •15 Security
- •Security
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •16 Emergency and Precautionary Landings
- •Emergency and Precautionary Landings
- •Ditching
- •Precautionary Landing
- •Passenger Briefing
- •Evacuation
- •Megaphones
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •17 Fuel Jettison
- •Fuel Jettison
- •Jettison System Certification Requirement
- •Jettisoning Procedure
- •Safety
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •18 Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
- •Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
- •Technical Instructions
- •Labelling and Packaging
- •Loading Restrictions
- •Provision of Information
- •Emergencies
- •Training
- •Accident and Incident Reporting
- •Acceptance of Dangerous Goods
- •Inspection for Damage, Leakage or Contamination
- •Labelling
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •19 Contaminated Runways
- •Contaminated Runways
- •Contaminated Runway
- •Damp Runway
- •Wet Runway
- •Dry Runway
- •Contaminant Depth Limitations
- •Aquaplaning (Hydroplaning)
- •Braking Action
- •Coefficient of Friction
- •Performance Considerations
- •SNOWTAMs
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •20 Revision Questions
- •Questions
- •Answers
- •21 Index
Chapter
19
Contaminated Runways
Contaminated Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. |
. |
233 |
Contaminated Runway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. |
. |
233 |
Damp Runway |
|
|
|
|
|
|
233 |
Wet Runway |
|
|
|
|
|
|
233 |
Dry Runway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. |
. |
233 |
Contaminant Depth Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
|
.233 |
Aquaplaning (Hydroplaning) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
233 |
Braking Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
|
.234 |
Coefficient of Friction |
|
|
|
|
|
|
234 |
Performance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. |
. |
235 |
SNOWTAMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. |
. |
235 |
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
|
.237 |
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. |
. |
240 |
231
19 Contaminated Runways
Runways Contaminated 19
232
Contaminated Runways 19
Contaminated Runways
The state of a runway for both take-off and landing are factors to be taken into account when calculating performance. In practical terms, pilots should be aware of the general implications of the state of the runway and meaning of the terminology used to describe the state of the runway.
Contaminated Runway
A runway is said to be contaminated if more than 25% of the surface area (whether in isolated patches or not) is covered by any of the following:
•Surface water more than 3 mm deep (0.125 in), or by slush or loose snow equivalent to 3 mm of water.
•Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further compression and will hold together or break into lumps if picked up (compacted snow).
•Ice, including wet ice.
Damp Runway
A runway is considered damp when the surface is not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give a shiny appearance.
Wet Runway
A runway is considered wet when the runway is covered with water, or equivalent, less than specified in contaminated runway above, or when there is sufficient moisture on the runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing water.
Dry Runway
A dry runway is one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and includes those paved areas which have been specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement and maintained to retain effectively dry braking action even when moisture is present.
Contaminant Depth Limitations
It is inevitable that operations from contaminated runways will be required. In such cases, the following depths are quoted, above which take-offs should not be attempted:
•dry snow depth greater than 60 mm (very dry - 80 mm)
•water, slush or wet snow greater than 15 mm
Aquaplaning (Hydroplaning)
During take-off and landing operations from contaminated runways (3 mm or more water), aquaplaning (hydroplaning) is a hazard that must be considered. During take-off runs, as water (or any other liquid contaminant) is displaced by the tyres, a ‘bow wave’ effect is created in front of the tyre. By a factor of the specific gravity of the contaminant and the tyre pressure, a speed will exist at which the tyre will ride up over the ‘bow wave’ and friction with the runway will rapidly reduce.
Contaminated Runways 19
233
19 Contaminated Runways
Runways Contaminated 19
Similarly, during landing runs, where touch-down speed is above the speed at which aquaplaning is likely, any application of the brakes may result in severe loss of friction between the tyre and the runway surface, thus drastically reducing braking. In this specific case the effect of aquaplaning will stop the rotation of the tyres and this can lead to dissipation of momentum energy in the form of heat generated in the contaminant. The temperature reached may scald tyres and skidding may result when the aquaplaning effect breaks down. In any case, loss of braking action and directional control are the hazards of aquaplaning. The aquaplaning speed is given by the formula:
V = 9 √P
σ
where V is the ground speed in knots; P is the tyre pressure in lb/sq in and σ is the specific gravity of the precipitant (contaminant). This speed, however, assumes a rotating tyre (spin down speed). For a non-rotating tyre, as in the situation on initial touchdown (spin-up speed), the aquaplaning speed is 7.7 times the square root of the tyre pressure in psi. If the pressure is stated in bar, 1 bar is approximately equal to 14.5 psi.
Braking Action
From data collected from operations on compacted snow and ice, an assessment table has been produced to relate a measured braking coefficient to an estimated braking action and hence to a simple code for braking action. It must be borne in mind that the description “good” is a comparative value and is intended to mean that aeroplanes should not experience directional control or braking difficulties when landing, but conditions would not be as good as on a clean, dry, runway:
Measured Coefficient |
Estimated Braking Action |
Code |
|
|
|
0.40 and above |
Good |
5 |
|
|
|
0.39 - 0.36 |
Medium to good |
4 |
|
|
|
0.35 - 0.30 |
Medium |
3 |
|
|
|
0.29 - 0.26 |
Medium to poor |
2 |
|
|
|
0.25 and below |
Poor |
1 |
|
|
|
unreliable |
UNRELIABLE |
9 |
|
|
|
Figure 19.1: Braking action code
Coefficient of Friction
In terms of assessment of braking action and the exchange of information relating to it between ATC and the pilot, the coefficient of braking on a wet runway is a factor of the difference between the non-torque limited braking and the torque limited coefficient. In laymen’s terms the difference between the maximum braking effect of a dry runway, and the braking effect on a wet (contaminated) runway for the same aeroplane at the same speed and the same mass.
234