12. Groundwater

Groundwater is water deposits stored in an aquifer, the upper limit of which is the water table. In arid regions, an aquifer may be nonexistent or may lie more than 1,000 feet (300 meters) below the surface, as is the case throughout much of the desert Southwest. Groundwater is tapped by wells, although in some places it reaches the surface through springs. Throughout much of the country, both the quality and the quantity of groundwater deposits are in sharp decline. Aquifers can easily be contaminated by the seepage of pollutants. Fortunately, monitoring systems can determine when they reach a dangerous level. In many areas, groundwater—some of which is many thousands of years old—has taken on a foul taste or odor because of the earthen material in which it is embedded. Salt and sulfur, for example, can reduce water quality.

In many locations, water from aquifers is being used faster than it is being replaced. This is occurring in the vicinity of many cities in the West. In the country’s midsection, from South Dakota to the Texas panhandle, much of the agriculture depends on irrigation with water taken from the Ogallala Aquifer. This aquifer is being mined at a rate much greater than its recharge. The future of this region depends on either finding an alternative source of water or on developing an economy that is in balance with available water resources.

4. Environmental hazards

Although blessed in many ways by its environmental diversity, the United States is also unique in an unfortunate way: It experiences a greater variety of natural hazards than does any other country and by a wide margin. Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere all wreak havoc on land and prop­erty and often take a toll on human life. Are natural forces always “at fault”? In this context, we must recognize the difference between a natural hazard, something that poses a risk, and a natural disaster, a natural occurrence that inflicts damage on human life or property. Simply stated, people who live in hazard-prone areas elect to do so knowing that they face potential risk. They bet that nature’s wrath will not affect them.

Some places are much safer or much more dangerous than others. In July 1998, the National Geographic Society published a map entitled Natural Hazards of North America, which shows the distribution of 11 environmental hazards. Amazingly, a very close correlation exists between population concentrations and both environmental hazards and natural disasters! The most dangerous areas are the Pacific Coast states and the eastern half of the country. Yet these areas are precisely where the great majority of Americans live. Coastal regions, wooded areas, lakeshores, river valleys, and mountains present pleasing visual landscapes to which people flock, making property values soar. In fact, research has shown that the greater the potential environmental risk, the higher the population density and value of property! Ironically, the nation’s safest areas—the Great Plains and much of the Great Basin—have the lowest population density, the highest out-migration, and the lowest property values.

The following list presents the nation’s 10 worst natural disasters in terms of loss of life. In all instances, figures are esti­mates, some of which vary greatly:

1900	Hurricane (Galveston, Texas) 6,000–12,000
1928	Hurricane (Florida Atlantic Coast)	2,500
1871	Forest fire (Peshtigo, Wisconsin)	1,200–2,500
1889	Flood (Johnstown, Pennsylvania)	2,210
1893	Hurricane (coastal Louisiana)	2,000
2005	Hurricane (New Orleans and
	Louisiana and Mississippi coasts)	2,000
1893	Hurricane (Sea Islands of
	South Carolina and Georgia)	1,500
1906	Earthquake (San Francisco,
	California)	500–3,000
1925	Tornadoes (Midwest)	727
1938	Hurricane (New England)	720

Such figures are quite alarming, but to put them in perspective, the total of the above list is 29,000 deaths. On the other hand, each year the country experiences about 44,000 highway fatalities, 50,000 violent deaths (murder, suicide, etc.), and about 445,000 deaths related to smoking. In addition, it is significant to note that only one of the events has occurred since 1928. Two factors have contributed to the sharp reduction in loss of life. First, forecasting has greatly improved: People can be alerted to many impending events well in advance, thereby allowing them to take necessary precautions. This is particularly true of weather-related hazards such as hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, or floods that cause rain or snowmelt. Once generated, tsunamis (incorrectly called “tidal waves”) also can be forecast. Scientists are even showing some progress in their attempts to predict earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. A second factor involves engineering and site selection. Today, settlements and structures are much more apt to be located and built with safety in mind. Many other steps can be taken. Dams, levees, preservation of wetlands, and reforestation all reduce the threat of flooding. Cellars offer protection from tornadoes, and improved forest and grassland firefighting strategies and tech­nology can reduce losses from such conflagrations.

Atmospheric hazards include hurricanes, tornadoes, heavy flood-causing rain, blizzards, ice-related storms including hail and sleet, lightning, and drought. Hurricanes, responsible for 6 of the country’s top 10 natural disasters, are generally limited to the Gulf and Atlantic coastal zones. Although their winds can be destructive, the greatest damage is caused by water. Along coasts, storm-pushed surges of water up to 20 feet (6 meters) high can rush ashore, destroying everything in their path. Inland, torrential rains can cause severe flooding. In New Orleans, Hurricane Katrina breached protective levees in several places and dropped up to 15 inches (38 centimeters) of rain. It was the nation’s greatest urban disaster since the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906. With damage estimated in excess of $80 billion, it also was the country’s most costly natural disaster by a wide margin. Tornadoes, blizzards, hail and ice storms, and flooding are commonplace throughout most of the eastern half of the country. Blizzards, drought, and local flooding pose threats in the Great Plains and much of the interior West.

The Pacific Coast is the most hazard-prone area of the United States. It lies within the Pacific “Ring (or Rim) of Fire,” a zone of geologic instability that encompasses most of Earth’s seismic and volcanic activity. From southern California to Alaska’s Aleutian Islands, the Pacific and North American plates slide, crunch, and grind against one another, creating one of Earth’s most earthquake-prone zones. Anchorage, Seattle, San Francisco, and Los Angeles all sprawl across active geologic faults and thus are in constant peril. Volcanoes dot the land­scape from the Cascades northward into Alaska and, of course, in Hawaii. Many are active. In 1980, Washington’s Mount St. Helens erupted violently. The blast devastated the surround­ing area for many miles and caused 57 deaths. Geologists had anticipated the explosion, and the peak is quite isolated, factors that contributed to minimal property destruction and loss of human life. In addition, the Pacific Coast is subject to earth creep and landslides, raging wildfires, and periodic droughts.

B

THE LAND AND ITS FEATURES

1. MOUNTAINS AND VALLEYS OF THE PACIFIC REGION - The Pacific region extends from California to Alaska, including Hawaii

- all of three land-building processes are present: volcanism, faulting and folding volcanic activity created: Hawaiian Islands, Alaska's Aleutian Islands and mountains, the Cascades of the northern California and western

Oregon and Washington

-folding created hills and low mountains - Imperial Valley and Central Valley in California, Willamette Valley in Oregon and the lowlands that border Washington's Puget Sound most

productive agricultural areas - series of mountains are a part of Pacific "Ring of Fire" going from north California to Alaska and then to Asia responsible for volcanic

activity - The Sierra Nevada is a mountain range, there is the highest point of the

continent Mount Whitney

-100 km from there - Death Valley (below sea level)- the third lowest point on Earth - Alaska Range-its peak Mount McKinley is the highest of North

Ameria 2. MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS, AND BASINS OF THE INTERIOR

WEST - basins-salt in the water accumulates (salt is on the surface): Bonneville Salt Flats - contain large saltwater bodies: Great Salt Lake in Utah, Salton

Sea in California -(náhorná plošina) The Columbia Plateau (Washington, Oregon and Idaho, volcanic origin, created from magma - the area Palouse has one of

the country's most fertile soil) -The Hell Canyon in that area was created by water eruption on the Snake River

The Colorado Plateau is composed of sandstones and limestones and lies where Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona meet

-in that area, many cliffs, natural bridges were created by water eruption

- Grand Canyon in Arizona was created by the Colorado River

- Rocky Mountains- from northern Mexico to Montana and as a mountain continue to Canada and Alaska

3. INTERIOR LOWLANDS Great Plains

- Black Hills (in Dakota), where the famous Mount Rushmore is - Central or Interior Lowlands or Plains (Texas, Dakota, Ohio,

Michigan) - fertile soil, most productive agriculture in this area

4. APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS

- extend from Alabama to New England and Canada

- relatively low

- Cumberland Gap - located where Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia

5. PIEDMONT AND ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAINS east from the Appalachian is Piedmont (pied = foot, mont = mountain),

falls there often -the water was very useful for settlements, the flow of river was important for them for trading

-Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains the Atlantic part extends from the Hudson River to eastern Florida, the Gulf coastal plain goes from Florida to Texas

- fertile soil, access to the sea, fresh water, woodland = ideal for

settlements

II. CLIMATES AND ECOSYSTEMS

the US lies within territory of each climate and ecosystem - many different animals, plants, soil conditions, water features

6. THE HUMID EAST

East

- is humid, drought is not frequent - Louisiana the nation's wettest state

- moisture falls during the whole year, mostly in summer because of

thunderstorms

- not freezing temperatures or snow in winter, it's very rare

Northeast

humid continental climate

- snow is normal in winter from November to April - winter can be freezing, summer is not too warm

- broadleaf, needleleaf or mixed forests- most of them cleared for

agriculture

- birds, mammals, marine life

- the soil is not that good (however, Corn Belt soil is one of the richest in the world)

7. THE DRY INTERIOR WEST

- high and low temperature extremes summer is the wettest season due to thunderstorms

- weather extremes, freezing winter, hot summer

- soil close to water is fertile

a lot of grass, buffalo, dear, elk, antelope

8. THE PACIFIC REGION

Coastal California (south)

- close to the Pacific Ocean = Mediterranean climate not many freezing temperatures, warm summer

- during summer, rain is not usual (summer droughts) -nature- grassland is present, also many eucalyptus species brought from

Australia

Coastal Northern California + part of Alaska

- climate is moist and temperate

- cool temperatures during summer, warmer winter

- some areas years without snow -the air is very humid, it drizzles often (Washington's Olympic Peninsula

= the wettest spot in the continental US)

- many locations can go days without sun (Washington, Seattle)

- The Pacific Region is home to many important forests due to the

humidity which is ideal for them - the world's tallest tree is a redwood (called Hyperion) present in the

Redwood National Park

- the world's oldest tree is located in California's White Mountains (considered to be the oldest living thing on Earth

- humid and tropical climate with many conditions and ecosystems - on the island Maui- tropical rainforests, desserts without water and also places with subpolar conditions

on the island Kaua'i - desert with cactuses, grasses and only few miles

away the wettest spot in the world (Mount Waialeale), it almost never

stops raining there

Alaska

- short and cool summers, long and cold winters

- only in the south the temperatures are better (for example Juneau, especially summers are warmer)

- the moist comes in a form of snow during all months in some locations

- many taigas - forests with pines, aspens, spruces, larches - tundra in the south - mosses (machy), lichens (lišajniky), hardy

flowering plants

-bears (black, brown, grizzly and polar), deer,

- sea-whales, seals, and much of seafood loved by Americans

caribou

III. WATER FEATURE

- in the US, water is used mainly in agriculture and then in industry

- transportation is cheaper by water

- water pollution is present

9. OCEANS

- the US is the only country bordered by 3 oceans - the Atlantic, Pacific and the Arctic Ocean

oceans are sources for shipping access to the rest of the world, marine

resources and beauty - oceans moderate atmosphere and influence the climat

10. LAKES

most of the lakes were created when the glaciers were melted - most lakes are located in the north-eastern part of the country and in the north from Ohio and Missouri rivers

目

Θ

- lakes on the southeast and west were created by people -the world's largest system of fresh water - The Great Lakes - water from them reaches to the Atlantic Ocean through the St. Lawrence River in Canada

11. RIVERS

- the largest river system in the US is created by 3 rivers: Mississippi,

Ohio and Missouri rivers - level of the Missouri River dropped in the 21st century due to droughts

-east-Hudson River was important for the growth of New York City

-southeast-Tennessee, Cumberland rivers

-southwest-Rio Grande (important for the agriculture of Mexico)

-The Colorado River (source for many cities)

- Columbia - the Snake River is very important for production of

hydroelectric energy

12. Groundwater

- tapped by wells or reaches a surface in spring - the problem: it's used faster than it's being replaced

IV. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

- natural hazard = something that poses a risk (people in hazard-prone areas know they face potential risk)

- natural disaster = natural occurrence which damages human life/

property -the most dangerous areas = the Pacific Coast states + eastern part of the

country - places with the biggest population - the safest areas the Great Plains and the Great Basin= the lowest

population - since 1928, only 2 disasters with high number of dead people happened

for 2 reasons: 1. better forecasts (related to tornadoes, hurricanes, floods caused by melted snow/ice and blizzards + sometimes tsunamis + scientists try to predict volcanic eruptions and earthquakes too)

2. settlements built with safety in mind - atmospheric hazards include hurricanes, tornadoes, heavy rain causing

floods, blizzards, ice-related storms, lightning and drought

6 from 10 disasters = hurricane (limited to the Gulf and Atlantic coastal zones)

- greatest damage is caused by water

- Hurricane Katrina (2005)-nation's greatest urban disaster since 1906 (Earthquake in San Francisco)

- the Pacific Coast is the most hazard-prone area because it lies within the "Pacific Ring of Fire" - it contains most of the volcanic activity

Earth's most earthquake-prone areas: southern California to Alaska's islands - many volcanoes are active, for example in Hawaii or Alaska's Aleutian

Presenations

1. There is no universal healthcare.

That means, that the U.S. government does not provide health benefits to citizens or visitors. Any time you get a medical care, you have to pay for it.

2. Healthcare is very expensive.

Perhaps the most pressing issue in health care is the high cost of care. More than 45% of American adults say it’s difficult to afford health care, according to a survey by the Kaiser Family Foundation, and more than 40% have medical debt. The cost of health care changes people’s behavior, with many forgoing seeing a doctor when they feel sick or avoiding preventive health visits entirely. A quarter of Americans can’t afford necessary prescriptions and may skip doses or otherwise not take medication as prescribed. Each of these behaviors can lead to serious health issues, increasing the cost of care down the road. According to HealthCare.gov, people without health coverage are exposed to extreme costs, which could lead into deep debt or even bankrupcy.

For example, fixing a broken leg can cost up to $7,500, the average cost of a 3-day hospital stay is around $30,000 and comprehensive cancer care can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars.

3. Most people in the U.S. have health insurance

Nearly 92% of the population was estimated to have coverage in 2018 (according to commonwalthfund.org), leaving 27.5 million people (8.5% of the population) uninsured.

To get health insurance, you need to make regular payments (called “premiums”) to a health insurance company. In exchange, the company agrees to pay some, or all, of your medical bills. As long as you keep paying your premiums, you will be “covered.” This means that the health insurance company agrees to pay for part of your medical bills.

BUT

The premium is just part of the price. Most of the time, you will also have to pay part of the cost when you get medical care—this is called your “out of pocket” cost. Before you sign up for a health insurance plan, you should find out how much the plan will pay when you get care and how much you will have to pay.

An insurance plan may have a “deductible,” “coinsurance,” “copayments” (or “copays”), and an annual “out-of-pocket limit.” Together with your premiums, these four things will determine your out-of-pocket costs.

1. Deductible

This is the amount you must pay for certain services before the insurance company will pay for any of your medical expenses. Your deductible might apply to each accident or illness.

For example, if your plan’s annual deductible is $2,000, you must pay 100% of your medical expenses until you have paid $2,000. After that, the insurance company will pay some or all of the cost. If you break your leg and get a bill for $7,500, you will pay $2,000, and the insurance company will pay some or all of the remaining $5,500. If you get sick or hurt again that year, the insurance company will pay the entire cost (except for any coinsurance).

2. Coinsurance

After you reach your deductible amount, you might have to share the cost of some medical expenses with the insurance company. This is called “coinsurance.” The coinsurance amount is the percentage you must pay; the insurance company will pay the rest. For example, if your insurance plan includes 20% coinsurance, and you get a medical bill for $500 after reaching your annual deductible amount, you will pay 20 percent of the bill, or $100, and your insurance company will pay 80 percent, or $400.

3. Copayment

You might have copayments (copays) for some medical services. A copay is a fixed amount you will pay for a specific healthcare service or for a prescription. You might have different copays for different medical services or for different types of prescription medications.

For example, if you have an appointment at a doctor’s office, your copay might be $25; but if you go the emergency room, your copay might be $200. When you get a generic prescription medication (one that does not have a brand name), your copay might be $15; but if you get a brand-name medication, your copay might be $50.

4. Annual-out-of-pocket limit

This the maximum you will be required to pay for covered medical expenses in any one year, not including your premium.

For example, if your plan has an annual out-of-pocket limit of $4,000, after you have spent $4,000 to pay medical bills for covered services during one year, the insurance company will pay 100 percent of the cost of covered services for the rest of the year.

4. You will get most of your care from your primary care provider (PCP)

After you buy health insurance, you can choose a PCP who is part of your insurance company’s network. Your new PCP could be a nurse practitioner or a physician. You will see your PCP when you need a physical exam or lab test, when you are sick, or if you need care for an ongoing condition, like diabetes or high blood pressure.

5. You will usually need an appointment to get medical care

If you want to see your PCP, you will need to call your PCP’s office to make an appointment. When you call, you need to explain why you need the appointment. If you are sick or hurt, you will get an appointment very soon. If you just need a routine physical exam, you might have to wait several weeks or even a month.

6. Debt

Despite over 90% of the United States population having some form of health insurance, medical debt remains a persistent problem. For people and families with limited assets, even a relatively small unexpected medical expense can be unaffordable.

According to healthsystemtracker.org, 23 million people (nearly 1 in 10) owe significant medical debt. Most adults owe over $1,000, and about half (11 million people) owe over $2,000. Among the 23 million adults, about 3 million (13%) have debt obligations between $5,001 and $10,000, and another 3 million (13%) owe more than $10,000.

The history of film in the USA reaches as far back as ancient Greece’s theatre and dance, which had many of the same elements in today’s film world. But technological advances in film have occurred rapidly over the past 100 years. Many camera devices, projectors and film sizes have been developed and mastered, creating the film industry we know today.