- •Outlines of english lexicology
- •Introduction
- •Two Approaches to Language Study
- •Lexical Units
- •Referential Approach to meaning
- •Meaning in the Referential Approach
- •Functional Approach to Meaning
- •Types of meaning
- •Part-of-Speech Meaning
- •Emotive charge
- •Stylistic Reference
- •Change of meaning
- •Causes of semantic changes
- •Linguistic causes
- •Nature of Semantic Change
- •Results of Semantic Change
- •Changes in the denotational meaning
- •Changes in the connotational meaning
- •Interrelation of Causes, Nature and Results of Semantic Change
- •Meaning and polysemy
- •The semantic structure of polysemantic words
- •Diachronic Approach
- •Synchronic Approach
- •Polysemy and homonymy
- •Homonymy of Words and Homonymy of Word-Forms
- •Classification of homonyms
- •Graphic and Sound-Form of Homonyms
- •Sources of Homonymy
- •Word-meaning in syntagmaTlCs and paradigmatics
- •Polysemy and Context
- •Lexical context
- •Grammatical Context
- •Extra-Linguistic Context (Context of situation)
- •Common Contextual Associations. Thematic Groups
- •Meaning relations in paradigmatics and semantic classification of words
- •Conceptual (or Semantic) Fields
- •Semantic Equivalence and Synonymy
- •Patterns of Synonymic Sets in Modern English
- •Connotations of synonyms
- •Dominant synonym
- •Euphemisms
- •Semantic contrast and Antonymy
- •Word groups
- •Some basic features of word-groups
- •Grammatical Valency
- •Structure of word-groups Distribution as the Criterion of Classification
- •Meaning of word-groups
- •Lexical Meaning
- •Structural Meaning
- •Interrelation of Lexical and Structural Meaning in Word Groups
- •Motivation in Word Groups
- •Phraseological units
- •Free Word-Groups Versus Set-Phrases. Phraseological Units, Idioms, Word-Equivalents
- •1. Criteria of Stability and Lack of Motivation (Idiomaticity)
- •2. Criterion of Function
- •3. Criterion of Context
- •Phraseological Units and Idioms Proper
- •Classification
- •Word-structure Segmentation of Words into Morphemes
- •Principles of Morphemic Analysis. Types of Word Segmentability
- •Classification of morphemes
- •Morphemic Types of Words
- •Word-formation
- •Various ways of forming words
- •Word-formation: definition
- •Conversion
- •Synchronic Approach
- •Typical Semantic Relations
- •I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs).
- •II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives).
- •Diachronic Approach of Conversion. Origin
- •Word-composition
- •Structure
- •Meaning
- •Structural Meaning of the Pattern
- •The Meaning of Compounds. Motivation
- •Classification
- •Relations between the iCs of Compounds
- •Different Parts of Speech
- •Means of Composition
- •Correlation between Compounds and Free Phrases
- •Productive Types of Compound Adjectives
- •Sources of Compounds
Correlation between Compounds and Free Phrases
The linguistic analysis of extensive language data proves that there exists a regular correlation between the system of free phrases and all types of subordinative (and additive) compounds. Correlation embraces both the structure and the meaning of compound words, it underlies the entire system of productive present-day English composition conditioning the derivational patterns and lexical types of compounds.
The structural correlation manifests itself in the morphological character of components, range of bases and their order and arrangement. It is important to stress that correlative relations embrace only minimal, non-expanded nuclear types of phrases.
The bases brought together in compound words are built only on the stems of those parts of speech that may form corresponding word-groups. The head of the word-group becomes the head-member of the compound, i.e. its second component. The typical structural relations expressed in word-groups syntactically are conveyed in compounds only by the nature and order of its bases.
Compounds of each part of speech correlate only with certain types of minimal variable phrases.
Semantically correlation manifests itself in the fact that the semantic relations between the components of a compound mirror the semantic relations between the member-words in correlated word-groups. For example, compound adjectives of the n+Ven type, e.g. duty-bound, snow-covered, are circumscribed by the instrumental relations typical of the correlated word-groups of Ven+ by/with + N type regardless of the actual lexical meanings of the bases. Compound nouns of the n+n type, e.g. story-teller, music-lover, watch-maker, all mirror the agentive relations proper to phrases of the N who V+N, cf. a story-teller and one who tells stories, etc.
■ Correlation should not be understood as converting an actually functioning phrase into a compound word or the existence of an individual word-group in actual use as a binding condition for the possibility of a compound. On the contrary there is usually only a potential possibility of conveying the same semantic content by both a word-group and a compound, actually this semantic content is conveyed preferably either by a phrase or by a compound word.
Correlation, it follows, is a regular interaction and interdependence of compound words and certain types of free phrases which conditions both the potential possibility of appearance of compound words and their structure and semantic type. Thus, the fact that there is a potential possibility of individual phrases with the underlying pattern, for example, as A + as N in as white as snow, as red as blood presupposes a potential possibility of compound words of the n+ a type snow-white, blood-red, etc. with their structure and meaning relation of the components preconditioned. It happens that in this particular case compound adjectives are more typical and preferred as a language means of conveying the quality based on comparison.
Structural and semantic correlation by no means implies identity or a one-to-one correspondence of each individual pattern of compound “words to one phrase pattern. For example the n + nv type of compound nouns comprises different patterns, such as [n+(v+ -er)] — rocket-flyer, shoe-maker, bottle-opener; [n+(v + -ing)] — rocket-flying, football-playing; [n+(v+ -ion)] — price-reduction. All these patterns differing in the individual suffix used in the final analysis correlate with verbal-nominal word-groups of the V+N type (e.g. to fly rockets), the meaning of the active doer (rocket-flyer) or the action (rocket-flying) is conveyed by the suffixes. However the reverse relationship is not uncommon, e.g. one derivational pattern of compound adjectives (n+a) in words like oil-rich, sky-high, grass-green corresponds to a variety of word-group patterns which differ in the grammatical and semantic relationship between member-words expressed in phrases by different prepositions. Thus compound adjectives of this type may correspond to phrase patterns A +of + N, e.g. pleasure-tired; A+in+N, e.g. oil-rich; as A as N, e.g. grass-green.
Table 1
n2 + n1 |
pencil case: a case for (keeping) pencils = N1 for N2 bottle neck: the neck of the bottle = N1 of N2 country-club: a club in the country = N1 in N2 (from, at) trapdoor: a door (that) is a trap = N1 is N2 sword-fish: a fish like a sword= N1 like N2 steamboat – a boat run by steam = N1 run/worked by N2 |
Another example of the same type of correlation is the polysemantic n+n pattern of nominal compounds which mirror a variety of semantic relations underlying word-groups of the N+prp+N type, such as relations of resemblance (e.g. needle-fish), local and temporal relations (e.g. country-house, night-flight), relations of purpose (e.g. search-warrant), etc. which in word-groups are conveyed by prepositions or other function words. (Table 1) represents the most common and frequent types of semantic correlation between n+n pattern of compounds and various patterns of nominal word-groups.
Compound words, due to the fact that they do not require any explicit way to convey the semantic relationship between their components except their order, are of much wider semantic range, leave more freedom for semantic interpretation and convey meaning in a more compressed and concise way. This makes the meaning of compounds more flexible and situationally derived.
It follows that motivation and regularity of semantic and structural correlation with free word-groups are the basic factors favouring a high degree of productivity of composition and may be used to set rules guiding spontaneous, analogical formation of new compound words.
It is natural that those types of compound words which do not establish such regular correlations and that are marked by a lack or very low degree of motivation must be regarded as unproductive as, for example, compound nouns of the a+n type, e. g. bluebell, blackbird, mad-doctor.