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.pdfRENDERING
Read the text about the delivery terms of the contract and render it in English.
1. Базисными условиями поставки в международном контракте купли-продажи называют специальные условия, которые определяют обязанности продавца и покупателя по поставке товара и устанавливают момент перехода риска случайной гибели или повреждения товара с продавца на покупателя. Базисными условия поставки называются потому, что они
•являются основой внешнеторговой цены, определяют ее содержание в зависимости от распределения транспортных расходов по доставке товара между продавцом и покупателем;
•регулируют ряд наиболее важных базовых вопросов, связанных с организацией доставки товара до места назначения.
Базисные условия, которые вырабатываются международной торговой практикой,
упрощают и до некоторой степени стандартизируют экспортные и импортные операции. Содержание этих условий исторически не являлось общепринятым, а определялось торговыми обычаями, сложившимися в коммерческой практике отдельных стран и отраслей торговли. Для облегчения использования терминов, касающихся условий поставки, неоднократно делались попытки создания единообразного свода правил по толкованию отдельных коммерческих терминов и тем самым по унификации применения в отдельных странах обычаев, относящихся
кэтим условиям.
2.ИНКОТЕРМС представляет собой свод международных правил для единообразного толкования наиболее употребительных в международной торговле терминов, относящихся к условиям поставки товаров по договору купли-продажи, т.е. к базисным условиям внешнеторговых контрактов.
Основным международным документом, широко применяемым в современной международной коммерческой практике, являются издаваемые Международной торговой палатой (МТП) условия «ИНКОТЕРМС 2000».
Правила ИНКОТЕРМС дают определение наиболее распространенных терминов, используемых в договорах международной купли-продажи и поставки товаров.
Этими правилами определяется
•распределение расходов по транспортировке;
•момент перехода риска случайной гибели товара от продавца к покупателю;
•распределение обязанностей по таможенной очистке и уплате таможенных пошлин;
•обязанность по страхованию.
ИНКОТЕРМС учитывает распространение в современной практике международной торговли зон, свободных от таможенных пошлин, рост использования электронных средств связи при осуществлении торговых сделок, изменения в практике транспортировки грузов. По каждому включенному условию определяются обязанности продавца и покупателя по доставке товара и устанавливается момент перехода риска случайной гибели или повреждения товара с продавца на покупателя. В обязанности продавца входит: поставить товар в распоряжение покупателя или передать его для перевозки, или доставить его в пункт назначения. В обязанности покупателя входит: принять поставку, а также предоставить подтверждение того, что обязанности продавца были соответствующим образом выполнены.
ИНКОТЕРМС содержит трактовку 13-ти базисных условий поставки, расположенных последовательно друг за другом по принципу возрастания расходов и ответственности продавца по доставке товара, т.е. от его наименьших расходов и обязанностей до наибольших.
3. Работа над систематизацией обычаев делового оборота, применимых к договорам международной купли-продажи, была начата по инициативе Международной торговой палаты в 1920 г. Уже в то время разное толкование одних и тех же терминов в коммерческой практике разных стран привело к многочисленным столкновениям сторон международных коммерческих операций, которые выливались в судебные споры. Работа над ИНКОТЕРМС продолжалась 16 лет. В 1936 г. Международная торговая палата впервые разработала и опубликовала сборник международных правил для толкования коммерческих терминов «ИНКОТЕРМС 1936». Затем появились редакции 1953, 1967, 1976 и 1980 годов. Они отражали изменения, произошедшие в деловой практике, а именно: все возрастающее использование средств компьютерной связи, изменение способов перевозки, использование контейнеров, смешанных перевозок. Особенно значительно текст ИНКОТЕРМС был переработан при подготовке широко применявшейся ранее редакции 1990 года.
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4.Общеизвестные традиционные условия поставки «CIF» и «FOB» рассчитаны исключительно на морские перевозки. «Морские» термины рекомендуется использовать только
втех случаях, когда основную часть пути товар проходит на морском судне. Тем не менее эти термины очень часто указываются в экспортно-импортных контрактах как базис поставки при перевозках в контейнерах или на иных видах транспорта.
В 1999 г. МТП внесла в использовавшуюся до недавнего времени редакцию 1990 года новые изменения, которые были опубликованы под названием «ИНКОТЕРМС 2000» и применяются начиная с 1 января 2000 г.
В основном изменения носят редакционный характер и отражают возросшее значение смешанных перевозок. Новая редакция включает все те же 13 терминов. Определения терминов по большей части остались прежними. Наиболее существенные изменения, связанные с перераспределением обязанностей по таможенной очистке товаров между продавцом и покупателем, были внесены в термины FAS и DEQ. Смысл этих изменений в том, чтобы обязанность по таможенной очистке несла сторона, происходящая из данной страны.
5.Содержание «ИНКОТЕРМС 2000»
Все термины «ИНКОТЕРМС 2000» разделены на 4 категории:
•продавец предоставляет товары в распоряжение покупателя непосредственно в своих помещениях (термины группы Е – EXW);
•продавец обязуется предоставить товар в распоряжение перевозчика, который указывается покупателем (термины группы F – FCA, FAS, FOB);
•продавец оплачивает перевозку, но не берет на себя риск случайной гибели или повреждения товаров в процессе транспортировки основными перевозочными средствами, а также дополнительные затраты вследствие событий, произошедших после отгрузки и отправки товаров (термины группы С – CFR, СIF, СРТ, CIP);
•продавец несет расходы и принимает на себя риски до момента доставки товара в страну назначения (термины группы D – DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU, DDP).
Цена FOB традиционно понимается как экспортная цена, а цена CIF – как импортная.
Unit 5
TERMS OF SHIPMENT
DISCUSSION
How much do you know about the ways to carry goods abroad? Discuss the following points with your partner.
•Advantages and disadvantages of different forms of transporting cargoes abroad.
•Problems in the world sea and ocean shipping markets.
•Official documents required to import or export goods.
READING
DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTING CARGOES
Key concepts and terms
Match up the words on the left with the definitions on the right.
1) transport |
a) a shipment of goods consigned |
2) consignor/-er |
b) a person, agent, organisation, etc., to which merchandise is |
|
consigned |
3) consignee |
c) a line of tubes with pumping machinery for conveying liquids like |
|
petroleum or gas between distant points. |
4) consignment |
d) a person, enterprise, etc., that dispatches goods |
5) pipe-line |
e) carry or cause to go from one place to another, esp. over some |
|
distance |
6) perishable |
f) unpackaged cargo or goods |
7) bulk |
g) liable to rot or wither |
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8) liner |
h) a merchant ship that does not run between ports on a regular |
|
schedule but carries cargo wherever the shippers desire |
9) tramp |
i) a ship or aircraft, esp. one that is part of a commercial fleet |
10) destination |
j) goods carried by a ship, aircraft, or other vehicle; freight |
11) cargo |
k) the predetermined end of a journey or voyage |
12) door-to-door |
l) the portion of the cost of a commodity that varies directly with the |
|
amount of it produced, principally comprising materials and labour |
13) prime cost |
m) (of journeys, deliveries, etc.) direct |
14) coaster |
n) goods shipped together as part of the same lot; the act of carrying |
|
cargo |
15) shipment |
o) a vessel or trader engaged in coastal commerce |
16) haulage |
p) the act or labour of transporting; a rate or charge levied for the |
|
transportation of goods |
Text 5.1. Read the text and explain what is to be taken into account while transporting cargos abroad.
General Considerations about Transportation of Cargoes Abroad
A good transport system is needed if goods are to be traded efficiently. A consignor can choose to send the consignment (the goods) to the consignee by water, which covers both domestic (national) and ocean (international) shipping; by land, i.e. by road, rail or pipe-lines; and by air.
When choosing the most suitable form of transport, the consignor has to consider:
•what kind of goods are to be sent – perishable goods have to be transported more quickly than non-perishable goods, for example;
•the place of destination – not all destinations can be reached by all forms of transport;
•the cost of each form of transport, how fast it is and how safe; the consignor may have to decide whether speed is more important than safety, for example.
When goods are being transported, they are called ‘cargo’ or ‘freight’. Cargo can be divided into three categories:
•general cargo – goods sent packed in boxes, cases, chests and other containers;
•bulk cargo – large quantities of items, such as sand and coal, when sent unpacked; and
•bulky cargo – large quantities of items, such as cars, which have to be sent unpacked.
There are several types of seaand ocean-going ships which carry cargoes. Liners sail on fixed routes and keep to a schedule. Tramps take any cargo they can get and sail to any port required. They do not follow a schedule of any fixed route. Coasters travel from one port to another along the coast of a country. They are not used for international shipping.
Text 5.2. Read the text and compare your ideas in the discussion section with the information given below.
Transportation of Goods
Sea and railway modes to transport cargoes account for the largest flow of traffic. The estimated percentage of various modes of transport in international haulage of goods is given below.
Mode of transport |
Cargo traffic, % |
Exports in Russia, % |
|
|
|
Sea |
60 |
45 |
Railway |
20 |
20 |
River |
5 |
2 |
Automobile |
8 |
2 |
Air |
5 |
1 |
Pipe-line |
2 |
30 |
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When choosing the most suitable form of transport, the consignor and consignee have to consider all advantages and disadvantages of it. As far as sea transportation is concerned, the carrier is the shipping company. It is the cheapest form of transport over longer distances, besides, the ports of a country may be accessible even when foreigners are not allowed into the country itself. Apart from that, unlimited distances can be covered and large quantities can be transported. However, shipping by sea is the slowest means of transport; it may be subject to delays and weather conditions. The obstacle may be a relatively limited network of inland waterways in some countries. According to the Incoterm agreed upon, either the exporter or the importer have to pay a relatively high insurance costs.
If goods are transported by train, the carrier is the railway company. The price of railway transport depends on how fast the goods are to travel: the slow goods train is cheaper than the passenger train, and the express train is the fastest and most expensive of all. Almost all types of cargo can be transported by rail and virtually any distance can be covered; large quantities can be carried. At the same time, like all other means of transport, railways may be affected by strikes and there is a relatively high risk of theft.
Goods which need careful handling, such as fruit, are often sent by road, as they only need to be loaded and unloaded once. Normally, they are sent as general cargo. The carrier responsible for transporting goods by road is the haulage company. This means of transport is very fast over short distances. The extensive road network means that most destinations can be reached. It is relatively secure: even valuable items such as cash reserves can be delivered by specialist companies. Door-to-door transportation minimises the need for handling: goods only have to be loaded and unloaded once. Another advantage (although it is possible with other means of transport) is the opportunity of using a grouped consignment service. If there is only a small quantity of cargo to be sent, the trader can cooperate with other sellers with small consignments all going to the same destination. The various consignments are then sent together as one whole consignment, with the transportation costs being reduced for all the parties involved. On the other hand, only small quantities can be transported and there is a relatively high risk of accidents and delays because of traffic jams. This means of delivery is expensive and time-consuming over longer distances; besides, intercontinental transportation is virtually impossible.
Air transport is chosen when the goods are valuable, fragile or urgently needed. The carrier is the airline. Air transportation is fast and secure, which means that insurance costs are low. Moreover, there is no limitation as to distance. Yet, it is relatively expensive, subject to delays and strikes, dependable on weather conditions and virtually not practical for short distances. Additionally, it may be necessary to send the goods some distance to reach the cargo terminal of an airport.
Concept check
1. Look back at Text 5.1, complete the chart below and describe it.
What a Consignor Should Bear in Mind
Considerations for |
Categories of |
Types of ships |
Consignors |
cargo |
|
Kind of |
General |
Liner |
goods |
|
|
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2. Fill in the table below with pros and cons of different means of transport. Can you complete line 5 yourself?
|
Transportation |
Advantages |
Disadvantages |
|
|
|
|
1) |
Sea |
|
|
2) |
Railway |
|
|
3) |
Road |
|
|
4) |
Air |
|
|
5) |
Pipe-Line |
|
|
3.Read each statement and decide if it is true or false. Explain your point of view.
1)Transportation costs do not depend on speed and safety.
2)Sea transportation is the largest in terms of goods traffic.
3)General cargoes are goods delivered unpacked.
4)Liners and tramps operate in a similar way.
5)Coasters do not go internationally.
4.Which form or forms of transport would you choose for the following consignments, and why? What kind of cargo – general, bulk or bulky – is involved in each case?
1)A large consignment of cars from Hamburg to Dresden.
2)A small consignment of flour from Wales to London.
3)A small consignment of china from London to Moscow.
4)An urgently needed consignment of tea from Bombay to Boston.
5)A cargo of timber (wood) from Germany to England via Rotterdam.
6)A consignment of diamonds from Cape Town to Cairo.
7)A large consignment of coal from Sheffield to Leeds (both in the north of England).
8)A cargo of bananas from the Caribbean to Dublin.
9)A large consignment of lorries from London to Warsaw.
10)A small consignment of cheese from Switzerland to the USA.
5.Describe the pattern of Russian exports in terms of modes of transport employed.
LANGUAGE STUDY
1. Study the list of words and word combinations and match them with their Russian
equivalents. |
|
1) freight |
a) каботажное судно |
2) tramp |
b) перевозка; транспортировка; доставка |
3) coaster |
c) перевозимый на зафрахтованном судне груз |
4) haulage |
d) грузовое судно, не работающее на определённых рейсах |
5) bulk cargo |
e) громоздкий груз |
6) bulky cargo |
f) смешанный груз; сборный груз |
7) general cargo |
g) навалочный (наливной, насыпной) груз |
8) grouped consignment |
h) погрузо-разгрузочные и транспортные работы; обработ- |
|
ка грузов |
9) handling |
i) объединённый, консолидированный груз |
2. Match the words on the left with their synonyms and antonyms.
Word |
Synonym |
Antonym |
|
|
|
1) consideration |
a) unchangeable |
a) potential, inessential |
2) domestic |
b) thought |
b) non-reachable |
3) fixed |
c) approachable |
c) disregard, ignoring |
4) accessible |
d) actual, de facto |
d) inconstant, temporary |
5) express |
e) brittle, friable |
e) slow |
6) extensive |
f) quick, speedy |
f) elastic, flexible , supple |
7) virtual |
g) fast |
g) foreign |
8) fragile |
h) native, indigenous |
h) narrow, limited |
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3.Replace the italicised words in the sentences below with the correct form of the words in 1 and 2.
1)The transportation company is responsible for loading and unloading cargoes.
2)Consolidated consignment service decreases the transportation costs.
3)A wide net of agents facilitates distribution.
4)Breakable goods need careful handling.
5)Internal shipping runs on inland waterways such as rivers, lakes and canals.
6)Intercontinental transportation is made much faster if it is possible to use an airline.
7)After long reflection, the importer agreed to our requests.
8)Air transportation is not suitable for unpacked mass goods.
9)This country possesses a fleet of vessels operating along the seashore and those which go
fixed courses.
10)The consignment of goods in sea transit was badly damaged by the storm.
4.Make your own sentences to illustrate the synonyms and antonyms in 2 in the context of international transportation.
READING
WORLD SHIPPING MARKETS AND PROBLEMS
Key concepts and terms
Match up the words on the left with the definitions on the right.
1) freight rate |
a) the delaying of a ship, railway wagon, etc., caused by the charterer's |
|
failure to load, unload, etc., before the time of scheduled departure; the |
|
extra charge required as compensation for such a delay |
2) commodity |
b) the price paid to a carrier for the carriage of goods |
3) demurrage |
c) a platform of timber, stone, concrete, etc., built parallel to the waterfront |
|
at a harbour or navigable river for the docking, loading, and unloading of |
|
ships |
4) congestion |
d) an article of commerce; an exchangeable unit of economic wealth, esp. a |
|
primary product or raw material |
5) wharf |
e) a person employed to load or unload ships |
6) stevedore |
f) a vessel, usually flat-bottomed and with or without its own power, used |
|
for transporting freight, esp. on canals |
7) monopoly |
g) reduce to a unit, or one whole; to form into a unit |
8) conference |
h) exclusive control of the market supply of a product or service |
9) unitise |
i) the difference between the loaded and the unloaded weights of a ship |
10) deadweight |
j) group of cargo liner companies which run regular services on fixed |
|
routes all over the world |
11) ramp |
k) a ship, lorry, or airplane designed to carry liquid in bulk, such as oil |
12) feeder |
l) a ship that carries unpackaged cargo, usually consisting of a single dry |
|
commodity, such as coal or grain |
13) bulk carrier |
m) the state of being overcrowded, esp. with traffic or people |
14) barge |
n) a sloping floor, path, etc., that joins two surfaces at different levels |
15) tanker |
o) a float, often inflatable, for raising a vessel in the water |
16) pontoon |
p) a vessel of side line which increases the business of the main line |
Text 5.3. Read the text and summarise world shipping problems.
Difficulties in the World Sea Transportation
All the parties involved in sea transportation encounter some difficulties while shipping goods. There are two kinds of problems for traders: increasing costs and inefficient services. Freight is just one of the expenses which traders have to cost into the price of the goods to their customers.
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Increasing freights lead to increasing prices which decrease sales. This is especially hard for exporters selling goods like cotton, coffee and copper. The export prices of these commodities sometimes decrease even when the freight rates are rising.
The second problem is caused by liner companies and ports failing to modernise. Traders have to pay demurrage for the time goods are delayed and their customers may get tired of waiting and buy goods elsewhere.
Shipowners often complain of poor facilities at ports. Sometimes tugs do not arrive or cranes are broken. Delays keep expensive ships waiting and waste money. Port congestion is caused by some traders allowing their goods to pile up on wharves, or by sudden large increases in traffic. Once the Nigerian government ordered 16 million tons of cement. There were so many tramps trying to berth at Lagos that all trade was stopped. World trade recessions are also bad for shipowners. The 1960s saw a big surplus over demand for ships built and many vessels were laid up.
Fast modernisation often solves problems of rich countries. However, it sometimes makes more problems for poor countries. Containerisation means unemployment for thousands of stevedores. Developing countries have to spend a large part of the money they earn from exports on freight. At the same time they cannot afford to borrow the capital necessary to buy containerised ports and ships.
A monopoly is when one company or a group of companies, working together, controls the market. This means that the sellers can raise or lower prices so as to keep their controlling position. In such cases, there is no competition of one seller against another, and the customers have no choice when they want to buy something.
This sort of situation sometimes exists in shipping services. It can either be a private monopoly system, as when only one conference serves one shipping route. Or it can be a state monopoly when traders are forced to use ships of their own country.
Special attention is to be paid to conferences. Cargo liner companies run regular services on fixed routes all over the world. They are called conferences because they hold meetings to agree to routes, timetables and freight rates. They need to do this to make sure too many ships do not arrive and sail from a port at the same time. They also have to decide on the right prices to charge exporters for sending their goods by sea (freight rates). In fact, this is the main purpose of conferences.
Most shipowners provide transport services to exporters and importers. But some traders, notably the oil companies, have their own ships for carrying their goods. This makes sense economically where the company is dealing in bulk cargoes over long periods of time.
Another kind of shipowner is the state. Several countries, notably the former communist states, India and Italy have government-owned shipping services which compete against the conference and tramp shipping companies.
Text 5.4. Read the text and briefly describe the freight market and its types.
The Freight Market and Different Types of Chartering
Shipping is an international business, and people dealing with chartering have to work with the conditions prevailing day by day in the international freight market. The freight market is not a uniform market. It does not have a homogeneous connection with a specific geographical area but rather with ships that can carry similar types of cargoes.
The most important freight markets are the dry cargo market, the tanker market, the reefer market, and the passenger market.
1) The Dry Cargo Market
It is the most diversified market that may be divided into the following markets: bulk and tweendecker, container, ro/ro, liner, feeder and special.
a) The Bulk and Tweendecker Market
Within the bulk sector one has to follow up carefully the variations in supply of the important bulk cargoes like coal, grain, ores and concentrates, scrap, steel, cement, phosphates, fertilisers, lumber, wood chips and cars. Modern bulk carriers with technically sophisticated equipment can also be used for the transportation of unitised cargoes of various kinds, like paper and pulp, and also for containers.
The most important employment possibilities for tweendeckers are, on the one hand, shipments of all kinds of bagged commodities, e.g. rice, sugar, cement and fertilisers, and, on the other hand, employment as supplementary or ‘extra’ vessels for the regular lines.
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b) The Container Market
In the late 20th century a widespread opinion prevailed that container ships of the lo/lo type (Lift on/Lift off) would totally knock out the conventional liners, but this did not occur; instead, there developed pure container trade parallel to conventional liner traffic.
The market for container ships is limited. They are used in traffic between highly industrialised areas with a technically advanced inland transportation system in both the exporting and the importing areas. This traffic requires large investments in specially equipped vessels, port installations and terminal equipment.
c) The Ro/Ro Market
For the го/ro ships (Roll on/ Roll off) the development was very special during the past few years. From the beginning, these ships were typical short trade carriers in trade between highly industrialised countries. Now there are ocean-going (from Europe and the United States to the Middle East countries and West Africa) ro/ro ships, which can carry all types of commodities (including industrial products, machinery, vehicles, building material, etc.) placed on wheeled platforms or flats which may be handled by the use of fork-lift trucks, and which do not require any port installation other than a stretch of quay with a length equal to the width of the ship, where the ramp can be lowered. Such a vessel may be totally emptied of cargo within only a few hours.
d) The Liner Market
Liner traffic is a firmly controlled activity where remuneration is fixed well in advance. e) The Feeder Market
There are shipping companies carrying on independent trading with vessels of smaller sizes, but the small single and tweendeckers are more and more frequently employed in more or less strictly scheduled feeder traffic of some kind (short-sea trade). It is, however, also common for ocean liner companies or a forwarding agent or a charterer/shipper who trade with their own products to operate feeder ships, as a part of their transport scheme.
f) Special Markets
In addition to the above-mentioned types of vessels, there are quite a number of special ships which meet various special needs such as
•heavy-lift carriers built with the special demands on stability and constructional strength;
•barges and pontoons used for the transport of heavy material, e.g. built-up drilling rigs, or as floating quays and feeders in short-sea traffic, as well as, as discharging platforms between an ocean-going ship and the quay;
•tugs since the demand for towing vessels has increased with the increased use of barges and pontoons; and
•barge carriers: barges with loaded cargo are towed up to and loaded into an ocean-going vessel and again launched and towed, e.g. up a river, or to the final place of reception at the port of destination.
2) The Tanker Market
One characteristic of the tanker market has been the comparatively small number of big charterers: the large oil companies and the small number of loading areas. The tankers – and especially those carrying crude oil – practically never get any return cargoes and are therefore normally forced to proceed in ballast to a loading area. Since 1950 the largest tankers usually called VLCC (Very Large Crude Carriers) and ULCC (Ultra Large Crude Carriers) about 200,000 and 350,000 tons d.w. have been used for the transport of crude oil, while so-called product tankers in sizes between 20,000 and 40,000 tons deadweight and the smaller coaster tankers are used to carry refined products, e.g. gas oil, fuel oil, parafin wax, lubricating oils, etc.
There are also special carriers for liquid chemicals of various kinds. The gas tankers form a special class, and the vessels are called LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) and LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) tankers.
3) The Reefer Market
Big scale reefer (refrigerated ships) trading is basically a worldwide operation. Reefer ships are employed in trading to a large extent but there is also an important spot market, for bananas, fish and
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meat the year round and citrus and other fruit, vegetables and potatoes – seasonal. The reefer ships may also be used in the dry cargo market to carry cars and tractors and even bagged cargoes, paper or unitised cargoes.
4) The Passenger Market
The big passenger ships in transoceanic liner traffic have now practically vanished. The large size tonnage with accommodation only for passengers is now primarily engaged in cruising. Most passenger ships are operated in short-distance trade and have a capacity for carrying goods.
Concept check
1. Complete the chart about sea shipping problems for traders and describe it.
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Problems for traders |
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______ costs |
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inefficient ______ |
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increasing _______ |
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______ companies |
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port facilities |
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delays
decreasing sales |
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payment of ______ |
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2. Match the statements on the left with the reasons for them on the right using the conjunctions in the middle.
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Containerisation causes unemployment |
because |
a) world trade decreases in the period of |
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2) Developing countries cannot always afford |
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economic recession. |
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b) fuel and maintenance costs go up. |
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containerisation |
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Many ports suffer from congestion |
the fact |
c) container ports need far fewer workers to load |
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ships. |
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Freight rates rise all the time |
owing to |
d) a large amount of capital is needed for building |
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new containers and cranes. |
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Ships have to be laid up |
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e) trade increase faster than the docks can be |
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enlarged. |
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3. Complete the following table on shipping problems by supplying a suitable word for each blank. Describe consequences and reasons of problems using linking words: therefore, because,
because of, resulting in, leading to and others.
Problem |
Concerning |
Details |
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1) Increasing ... |
traders |
increasing … and demurrage |
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increased prices for … goods |
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Problem |
Concerning |
Details |
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2) … facilities |
traders |
out of date … and ships |
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storage problems on … |
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shipping Co. |
non-arrival of tugs |
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… not working |
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port … |
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also not enough berths |
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3) Modernisation |
developing |
containerisation |
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high capital … and fewer … |
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countries and |
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unemployment |
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value of … decreased by freight costs |
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4.Read each statement and decide if it is true or false. Explain your point of view.
1)Freight rate is the expense which has to be built into the price of the goods.
2)Some countries still have problems with modernisation of port facilities.
3)Increasing freights lead to increasing prices which increase sales.
4)Demurrage is paid because of increased freight rates.
5)Port congestion may be caused by sudden increases of traffic.
6)Containerisation in less developed countries does not challenge employment.
7)Trade increases faster than docks can be enlarged.
8)World trade increases in times of economic recession.
9)Competition of sellers means the customers have no choice.
10)Conferences and governments are major shipowners.
5.What is the freight market? What are the major freight markets in the world?
6.Complete the chart below with the types of the dry cargo submarkets. Describe each of them.
Dry Cargo Market
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7.What types of tankers can be identified? What sort of cargo do they carry?
8.What commodities do reefers transport?
9.What is the passenger market like nowadays?
10.Complete the sentences below.
1)The most diversified freight market is … .
2)Such commodities as … are transported by bulk carriers.
3)Tweendeckers are employed as … .
4)The container market is still limited because … .
5)Ro/ro ships facilitate the emptying of vessels because … .
6)Feeder vessels are part of … .
7)The main disadvantage of tankers is that … .
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