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'The experience accumulated in the operation of the first selfpropelled laboratory was used in the development of the new moon rover. Several new technical solutions were used in it. The weight of the vehicle increased to 840 kilogrammes. This was due to the installation of new instruments and the im­ provement of instruments used before.

The Lunokhod-2 self-propelled vehicle operated in the course of four months in the immediate proximity of a continental region on the Moon. Pursuing the chosen route the mobile laboratory travelled 37 kilometres over difficult ground in five lunar days. The improved manoeuvrability and mobility of the Lunokhod-2 enabled the self-propelled laboratory to cover a distance 3.5 times greater than that covered by the first moon rover.

The Lunokhod-2 transmitted to the Earth 86 panoramic views and over 80,000 television photos of the lunar surface. En route the moon rover made regular measurements of the physicomechanical properties of the surface layer of the ground and conducted tests of the chemical composition of Moon rock. While making progress along the route the mobile laboratory conducted continuous measurements of magnetic field variations and of the intensity of magnetization of lunar *rock. These measurements helped obtain information on the internal structure of the Moon to depths of the order of several hundred kilometres.

For the first time measurements of the luminosity of the lunar sky were made from the surface of the Moon. At the same time experiments in laser direction finding of the moon rover were carried out too.

The Lunokhod-2 also carried an angular reflector that had been produced in France. In the course of several months the Soviet and French scientists conducted joint experiments on it in laser ranging. The distance from the source of laser radiation to the reflector was measured with an error of no more than 40 centimetres.

The successful flights of Soviet-made artificial Moon satelli­ tes, of automatic probes which delivered lunar rock samples to the Earth and the functioning of self-propelled laboratories — Lunokhod-1 and Lunokhod-2 — on the surface of the Moon have shown that at the present stage many of the scientific problems in lunar research can be successfully solved with the aid of automatic space vehicles.

29. Flight and Design of the Venera-8 Probe

The first direct measurements of the characteristics of Venus’ atmosphere and the first tests of its chemical composition were

•made by the Soviet interplanetary probe Venera-4 in October 1967. In subsequent years these experiments were continued by

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the Veriera-5, Venera-6, and Venera-7 automatic probes. The stage of research consisting in direct measurements of the physico-chemical characteristics was completed by the Venera-8 probe as it descended into the atmosphere of Venus.

On July 22, 1972 the Venera-8 interplanetary probe reached the region of the planet on its daylight side after covering a distance of more than 300 million kilometres in 117 days. As the probe entered the atmosphere of Venus the descent capsule with instruments and equipment was separated from it. The capsule parachuted to the surface of the planet.

As the capsule parachuted to the surface and for fifty minutes after touchdown it conducted investigations of the atmosphere and the surface layer of the planet at the point of landing.

The data obtained Were, transmitted to the Earth.

Just like all the previous probes of this type the Venerq-8 consisted of an orbital compartment and a descentcapsule.

The designers of the Soviet space station Venera-8, which made a soft landing on the planet Venus, are now' considering other and still more complex problems, according to the deputy chief designer of the spacecraft. Venera-8 “fully carried out its programme and transmitted to the Earth a great deal of valuable information about the planet,” he told a Pravda correspondent in an interview. “Our technical solutions which were incorporated

received a considerable amount of engineering experience which we shall need for future Venus probes.” Venera-8 was a logical development of the previous station, Venera-7, said one of the . leading designers, “but the descent module was redesigned 4 almost from scratch.” He explained that the craft was intended to work on the surface of Venus for a relatively long period of time and special dejnands were therefore made of its thermal insulation. New devices and additional scientific instruments were installed in the module and there had to be a reduction in weight to compensate for this. This was achieved mainly by making the body of the module lighter, without, however, lessening its strength. “We faced a difficult problem in ensuring that the instrument compartment was hermetically sealed,” the designer said. “The fact that the craft continued to function on the surface of the hot planet shows that this task was fulfilled successfully.” He told the correspondent that in the landing module of Venera-8 a new system had been employed for separating the lid of the parachute compartment and an improved

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The body of the spacecraft was repeatedly tested in. a high pres­ sure chamber simulating the physical conditions on the surface of the hot planet. A safety margin was provided during.the tests, with the pressure being increased to over a hundred atmospheres and the temperature toover 500° C. The landing of the module on the planet’s surface was also simulated in this chamber with the help of special shock absorbers. As a result of the Venera-8 flight a large amount of valuable scientific information about conditions on the day side of Venus and the nature of its surface layer was transmitted to the Earth during the module’s descent through the atmosphere.

30. Soviet Space Probes Explore Mars

The flights of several Soviet and -American space vehicles to Mars have made it possible to establish many important characteristics of the planet itself and of near-A^ars space. Data have been obtained on the relief of Mars, on the surface layer of the planet, temperature variations on the surface, on atmos­ pheric structure and composition. The functioning of the Soviet space probes Mars-2 and Mars-3 as artificial Martian satellites has helped study the magnetic fi'eld of the planet, obtain data on the gravitational field, on its atmosphere and cloud canopy. The American Mariner-9 vehicle produced a medium-scale photo image of a large part of the surface. The natural satellites of Mars have also been photographed.

In 1973 the Soviet Union launched four Mars-bound probes. They were Mars-4, Mars-5, Mars-б and Mars-7.

The Mars-4 probe approached the planet on February 10, 1974: Owing to the malfunctioning of an on-board system the braking rocket engine unit-was not switched on and the probe passed by the planet at a distance of 2,200 kilometres' from its surface. A phototelevfsion device produced photographs of Mars which were transmitted to the Earth.

The Mars-5 probe reached Martian environs on February 12. At 18:45 hours, Moscow time, the retro-rocket -was switched on to put the probe into a circum-Martian orbit. All the dynamic operations at the final stage of the flight were' carried out automatically with the aid of the on-board astronavigational system.

-The Mars-6 and Mars-7 probes reached the environs of the planet on March 12 and 9, 1974 respectively.

When the Mars-6 probe approached the planet the final correction of its flight trajectory was made with the aid of its on-board astronavigational system. The descent capsule was separated from the probe. The engine was switched on to put the

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descent capsule on the Martian descending path. After aerody­ namic braking the parachute system was actuated.

Earth. In the immediate proximity of the Martian surface radio contact with the descent capsule was broken off. The descent capsule of Mars-6 reached the surface of the planet in a region

because of the failure of one of the on-board systems after the capsule was separated from the probe.

Further interesting results were obtained with the aid of the Mars-5 probe functioning as an artificial satellite of the planet.

The orbital station was fitted with instruments for compre­ hensive studies of the atmosphere' and surface of the planet by astrophysical methods. The optical axes of all the instruments were oriented in a way to allow them to “see” the planet when

composition, the chemical composition of the lower atmosphere and the structure of the upper layers of the atmosphere.

A photometer sensitive to the water vapour absorption line has shown that in some regions of Mars the content of water vapour in the atmosphere reached 60 microns of precipitated water according to a preliminary estimate. This is,several times the maximum quantity of water vapour discovered in 1972 with the aid of a similar instrument mounted in Mars-3.

In near-Martian space a magnetometer registered a magnetic field with an intensity seven to tentimes exceeding that of the background interplanetary field.

On the first of February 1974 the .Mars-4 probe photographed Mars from a by-pass path, whereas the Mars-5 probe took photos from an artificial-satellite orbit. The photographs were taken with the aid of two phototelevision devices with a resolving power enabling them to distinguish elements of a size of one kilometre by one hundred metres from a distance of about two thousand kilometres. Besides, the image of a broader zone of the ground was obtained along the flight route with the aid of optico-mechanical scanners.

The survey and photography routes were in the southern hemisphere, spanning several thousand kilometres from west to east and covering numerous structurally varied regions on the Martian surface.

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Unique scientific data are considered to have been obtained in the descent and touchdown of the descent capsule from the Mars-6 probe.

To carry out a study of atmospheric parameters the descent capsule was fitted with instruments for measuring pressure and temperature, for the establishment of the chemical composition, and with g-sensors. According to a preliminary estimate the pressure at the surface at the point of touchdown was about six millibars.

Soviet and French scientists conducted joint experiments with the aid of four Mars probes in measuring the intensity of the glow of the hydrogen resonance line, in investigating solar wind

radiation in the metre wave-length range.

The data obtained by the Soviet automatic probes Mars-4, Mars-5, Mars-6 and Mars-7 which continued the investigations begun by Mars-2 and Mars-3 considerably extended our knowledge of the nature of Mars and made a new contribution to the development of planetology today.

31. Manned Flights

In the last few years a new line has emerged in cosmonautics. This line is manned flights in long-life orbital scientific stations.

orbital station lasted nearly six months and consisted of several

executed the rendezvous and docking of the Soyuz-10 spaceship to the Salyut station. They checked the functioning of the onboard systems ensuring the delivery of the expeditions aboard

In the course of the twenty-three day flight in the first manned orbital station the crew fulfilled .a vast research programme. The cosmonauts conducted a number of investiga­ tions and experiments in the interests of the national economy, they executed observations and took photographs of geological and geographical objects on the Earth’s, surface, of atmospheric formations, of the snow’ and ice cover of the planet.

During this flight the crew carried out a considerable programme of medical and biological experiments, measurements and tests to determine the optimal conditions for the life and

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work of cosmonauts and to establish the possibilities for the fulfilment of different jobs in space.

After three and a half month manned flight the Salyut station functioned automatically.

Manned flights of Soviet crews in circumterrestrial space cover a wide range-of problems and tasks associated with space research and exploration. Among these the main are:

— improvement' of manned spacecraft, development of methods of navigation and control of spacecraft;

—investigation of the physical characteristics of near space, of phenomena and processes occurring in it;

—astrophysical research and observation of the Sun, Moon,

stars and planets;

— observation and survey of geological and geographical objects on the Earth’s surface to utilize the data thus obtained for the benefit of the national economy;

— observation and photography of atmospheric formations, the snow and ice cover of the Earth to use the data obtained in

In 1973 two manned Soyuz spaceships were put into orbit. On September 27 the Soyuz-12 spaceship was orbited with the cosmonauts V. G. Lazarev and O. G. Makarov aboard. In the two days’ flight the space crew conducted a thorough comprehensive check and trial of the ^ improved ship’s systems. Besides, the two spacemen continued to work on the procedures of manual and automatic control in different flight conditions. They also conducted a series of observations -and experiments for the purpose of studying natural resources. The cosmonauts photographed separate sections of the Earth’s surface in the different regions of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, from the visible to the infrared region. On the whole the flight' of Soyuz-12 was a test flight which confirmed the reliability of improved design, on-board systems and units.

On December 18, 1973 the Soyuz-13 spaceship was launched with a crew consisting of P. I. Klimuk and V. V. Lebedev.

The main purpose of th,e flight was to conduct astrophysical

equipment .was covered by a protective dome which ensured nor­ mal temperature conditions. Opposite the telescope the dome was fitted with a “window” with a protective cover that was opened only for the time of the experiment.

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The Orion-2 complex made it possible to obtain spectrograms of stars in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.

During the eight days’ flight the cosmonauts P. I. Klimuk and V. V. Lebedev held sixteen sessions in which they registered the spectrograms of stellar radiation. They took the spectrograms

The scientific programme of Soyuz-13 also included spectrozonal photography of sections of the Earth’s surface and spectrography of natural formations, of the Earth’s twilight and daylight horizons.

While in orbit the cosmonauts P. I. Klimuk and V. V. Lebedev

flight of the Soyuz-13 spaceship was completed on December 26, 1973.

The flight of the Salyut-3 scientific station was a new step in the development and advancement of long-life orbital stations. It was put into a circumterrestrial orbit on June 25, 1974.

On July 3, 1974 the Soyuz-14 spaceship was put into orbit round the Earth with a crew consisting of P. R. Popovich, captain, Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR, Hero of the Soviet Union, and Y: P. Artyukhin, flight engineer. The Soyuz-14 functioned as the vehicle that delivered the space crew to the Salyut-3 station.

. One day later the docking of the space vehicles took place. The rendezvous and docking of the spacecraft proceeded without a hitch. In the initial rendezvous leg control of the Soyuz-14 transport ship was effected automatically with the aid of the on-board facilities. When distance between the vehicles decreased to 100 metres, the approach and tethering of the spaceship to the station were carried out by the crew. After completion of the docking procedure the cosmonauts Pavel Popovich and Yuri Artyukhin checked out the on-board systems of the station; they equalized the pressure in the compartments and only then opened the hatch and went over into the station.

The Salyut-3 station differs from the preceding orbital stations in a number of design features. In particular, the

cosmonauts. It has sleeping berths, kitchen equipment, a library. There is medical equipment.within reach.

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and experiments. And finally the transfer compartment serves as auxiliary space for communication between the station and the ship.

Several units and on-board systems of the station have been re-designed. For instance, the station is fitted with solar cell batteries which can be oriented in flight on the Sun regardless of the position of the station. Changes have been made in the design of the control, temperature regulation and life-support systems.

A large share of the work of the Salyut-3 orbital station was connected with scientific research, photographing the Earth’s atmosphere, the daylight and twilight horizons of the planet, vast plains and mountain regions of the Caucasus, the Soviet Central Asian Republics and the Pamirs. These data will be used in the solution of national economic problems, such as study of

of advanced life-support systems, systems of thermal regulation, of control and attitude control.

The two-week programme of scientific, technological, medical and biological research and experiments in the Salyut-3 station was completely fulfilled.

On July 19, 1974 the crew of the Salyut-3 orbital station returned to the Earth making a soft landing in a pre-arranged area in the Soviet Union.

On August 26, 1974, the spaceship Soyuz-15, with a crew of two — Lieutenant-Colonel G. V. Sarafanov, the pilot-in-com­ mand, and Colonel-Engineer L. S. Demin, the flight engineer—was

an automatic rendezvous with the orbital station Salyut-3. The

Soviet programme of training for the joint Soyuz-Apollo mission. The crew consisted of Colonel A. V. Filipchenko, the captain, and N. N. Rukavishnikov, the flight engineer.

Soyuz-16 is similar to the ship intended for the joint flight in July, 1975.

During the flight, which lasted six days, the crew tested the docking unit and all its automatic facilities, the attitude control system, the engine control system and the life-support system, all of which have been modified to meet the requirements of the

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investigations and experiments, and photographed various areas of Soviet territory for the purpose of surveying economic resources.

Upon completing their assigned programme, cosmonauts Filipchenko and Rukavishnikov landed their ship on December 8.

32. Salyut-3 Programme

The Tass agency announced on 26 September 1-974 that the

main programme of work on 23 September a recoverable module containing the materials of research and experiments was separated from Salyut-3. The engines were switched on at a set time and the module began its descent to the Earth. The engines were discarded before entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere and a parachute system was activated at an altitude of 8.4 km. The recoverable apparatus landed in the predetermined area in the Soviet Union. .The duration of the station’s flight had

of the flight, the station was to continue to operate on an automatic regime. The fulfilment of the additional programme was to provide a large amount of scientific and technical information.

and experiments in' the manned and automatic modes of

consisting of the commander of the ship, Colonel Pavel' Popovich, and the flight engineer, Lieutenant-Colonel Yuri Artyukhin. The crew completely fulfilled a 15 day programme of work on board the station, and returned to the Earth on 19 July. The station continued its flight automatically in accordance with the set programme.

Soyuz 15, piloted by its commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Gennady Sarafanov, and the flight engineer, Colonel Lev Demin, was launched on 26 August. Scientific experiments involving the testing of an automatic system for the approach of spacecraft in different flight regimes were carried out during the joint flight of Soyuz-15 and Salyut-3. On 28 August the detachable module of Soyuz-15 made a soft landing at night-time in a predetermined part of the Soviet Union.

During the 90-day oriented flight of Salyut-3, tests were carried out, under the manual and automatic modes of operation, of a high-precision control system, an electro-mechanical stabili­

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zing system, an autonomous navigation system, power-supply systems with, revolving panels of solar batteries, thermalregulation, life-support and radio communication systems, and also engine systems. Control of the station’s equipment and its autonomous navigation system was effected by means of an on­ board computer and commands from the Earth, and by the crew.- The flight of Salyut-3 was tracked and corrected by a correspon­ ding analogue complex on the Earth.

A large series of scientific-technical, medical-biological and economic, studies and experiments were carried out during the

33. The Orhit of Peace

July 15, 1975. At 15 hours 20 minutes Moscow Time, the Soyuz-19 spaceship lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome with two cosmonauts on board — spaceship commander Alexei Leonov and flight-engineer Valery Kubasov. At 22 hours 50 minutes the American spaceship Apollo with three" astronauts on board — Thomas P. Stafford, spaceship commander, Vance Brand and Donald K. Slayton — was launched from the John Kennedy Cosmodrome.

July 16, Alexei Leonov and Valery Kubasov carried out the orbit circularization manoeuvre to prepare for the rendezvous with the Apollo. The cosmonauts oriented their ship in such a way as to place the solar battery panels at right angles to sunlight

biological experiments. Their purpose was to study the influence

trouble in their ships. The Soyuz-19 ship’s television cameras

ship and the module. Following expert advice transmitted from the near-Moscow and Houston Mission Command Centres, both disorders were overcome. At 19 hours 33 minutes, the Soyuz-19 crew carried out its first television transmission to Earth.

July 17. At 16 hours, ultrahigh frequency (UHF) communica­ tion was established with the Apollo crew. When the distance between the Soyuz-19 and Apollo ships constituted about 430 km,

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