EfhoQTJ7s8

ие» [Электронный ресурс] / Г.И. Шевцова. Режим доступа: http:// grinworld.org/salvatory/salvatory_04_28_1.htm (дата обращения: 23.11.2015).

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УДК 811.511.12+39 ББК 81.2Саам-4+63.5(2)

A.V. Kopylov

Murmansk Arctic State University Murmansk, Russia

“HOME” IN SAAMI CULTURE

Abstract. This paper is based on the author’s experience of participating in a project aimed at compiling a Kildin Saami – Russian – English Dictionary of Cultural

Terms and discusses the concept of “home” with reference to Saami culture. The author suggests that for the Saami people its spatial dimension may be related to the whole of their natural environment and to movement rather than a fixed position in space.

Key words. Home, Saami culture, indirect translation, types of Saami dwell-

ings.

А.В. Копылов

ФГБОУ ВО «Мурманский арктический государственный университет» г. Мурманск, Россия

ДОМ В КУЛЬТУРЕ СААМИ

Аннотация. Статья основана на опыте участия автора в составлении электронного саамско-русско-английского словаря саамских национальнокультурных реалий (в рамках поддержанного РГНФ в 2014–2015 гг. проекта № 14-14-51001 «Перевод названий саамских национально-культурных реалий»). Изученный материал наводит на мысль, что концепт «дом» в саамской культуре существенно отличается, в частности, от русского, особенно в том, что касается его пространственного измерения. Наличие различных типов жилищ, приуроченных к различным занятиям и периодам годового цикла (отсутствие жесткой привязанности к конкретному месту), может трактоваться в том смысле, что «домом» является вся привычная окружающая среда в целом, воспринимаемая не как враждебная, а как обеспечивающая существование. Человек нуждается здесь не столько в том, чтобы защититься от среды и выделить в ней свое пространство, сколько в том, чтобы гармонично вписаться в нее.

Ключевые слова. Дом, саамская культура, непрямой перевод, типы саамских жилищ.

This article reflects my experience of working together with Yelena Tyurkan and Yelena Alexandrova on an electronic Kildin Saami – Russian – English Dictionary of Cultural Terms, and a number of relevant entries from this Dictionary are quoted later in this paper. The interpretations of what I take to be the Saami vocabulary reflecting the key features of the Saami concept of home are largely based on the definitions and descriptions of Saami dwellings con-

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tained in the existing Russian-language sources on the Kildin Saami language and culture which have also served as the primary sources for this electronic Dictionary. This latter peculiarity of the Dictionary has necessitated a brief discussion of the problem of indirect translation which is included in this paper by way of an explanation of the methodology underlying the Dictionary.

Sapmi, the land inhabited by the Saami (Sami) people, was traditionally divided into a number of smaller territories used by relatively independent kin- ship-based Saami communities known as siida. In order to pursue its traditional economic activities, such as reindeer herding and fishing, on which its survival depended, each siida had to engage in seasonal movements which took its members from their winter village to spring, summer and autumn camps. Of these, the winter villages were probably closest to the Russian idea of a rural settlement and normally consisted of several dwellings called goahti in Northern Sami (also known as kuedt’ in Kildin Saami and vezha in Russian). In late spring, the families inhabiting a winter village set off along the old familiar trails to their spring, summer and autumn camps where their reindeer had more food and they could fish and hunt. While staying at these small camps, Saami families lived in special tents called lavvu (also known koavas in Kildin Saami and kuvaksa in Russian)1.

The main features of the koavas (lavvu) are determined by the fact that it is a temporary dwelling. Its relative simplicity enabled the Saami reindeer herders to move their semi-domesticated animals to a new place almost at a moment's notice. This structure was designed in a way that enabled the indigenous peoples of the treeless plains of northern Europe to live in complete harmony with nature. The koavas is stable enough to endure the fierce winds not infrequent in the tundra, including parts of the Kola Peninsula. The Saami people habitually travelled in single family groups, which meant that one could not count on the combined effort of many people when it came to taking the family’s temporary dwelling to a new place, and the koavas was designed in such a way that a even small family (indeed, even one person) could be reasonably expected to set it up quickly and with relatively little effort2.

One of the main problems which arose in connection with the Dictionary was the difficulty of identifying Kildin Saami terms describing dwellings and their elements with the relevant Northern Saami terms. In some cases, the authors did not feel that such identification could be made beyond a reasonable doubt and, consequently, refrained from suggesting Northern Saami parallels.

In what follows I would like to quote several entries from the Dictionary featuring words that denote various types of Saami dwellings and the elements of their interior. The English parts of the entries are based on (Kildin) SaamiRussian dictionaries edited by R. Kuruch (1985) and G. Kert (1986). The abbre-

1Inuvialuit Sod House. URL: http://www.inuvialuitsodhouse.ca.

2Northern Lavvu. URL: http://lavvu.com.

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viation NS stands for “Northern Saami” and is used to introduce Northern Saami parallels, often borrowed from Jocelyne Fernandez, M.M. Parlons lapon. Paris,

Montrйal: L’Harmattan, 1997. The Russian parts of the entries have been abridged.

It is only natural to begin with koavas:

КОАВАС /koavas/ кувакса (национальное жилище саамов, похожее на чум) (РК); чум (ГКСРС)

NS: lбvvu

Koavas, a temporary Saami dwelling, similar to a round tent, made of up to sixteen poles arranged in the shape of a cone. Its portable character makes it possible for the Saami people to follow their herds of reindeer. Traditionally it was covered with reindeer skins, nowadays it is often covered with tarpaulin.

For people living in the Kola Peninsula, the koavas is probably the best known type of Saami dwelling, a symbol of the life style of a people who are constantly on the move. A more permanent type of dwelling is what the Russian inhabitants of the peninsula call vezha:

КУЭДТҌ /kuкdt’/ вежа (шалаш из жердей, покрытый хворостом, мохом и дёрном) (РК)

NS: goahti (JF, p. 210)

Kuкdt’, a Saami hut made of poles and covered with brushwood, moss and turf .

Most elements of the interior of a Saami dwelling are highly functional and are made from natural materials:

(1) ЛОАЙЙТ /loajjt/ место в куваксе для спанья (боковая сторона)

(РК)

A place for sleeping close to the side of a koavas.

лоаййт тӯрк /loajjt tuurk/ ветки, предназначенные для спального места (РК)

wigs to be used in preparing a place for sleeping.

(2)ЫНКАС /ynkas/ место для очага в середине куваксы (обычно обкладывается плоскими камнями) (РК)

The place for the hearth in the middle of a koavas, a circle, 40–70 cm wide, normally surrounded by flat stones. A sheet of tin is kept under the firewood in winter.

(3)ЛӮППС /luupps/ место в веже либо в куваксе для продуктов и посуды (РК); кладовая (ГКСРС)

Luupps, the place in a Saami dwelling (a kuкdt’ or a koavas) where food, dishes and cutlery are kept (normally situated opposite the entrance); a storeroom.

(4)РĒҺПЕНҌ /reehpen”/ дымник, дымовое отверстие (РК)

A smoke vent at the top of a koavas or a kuкdt’.

Other elements may be described as almost universal for human dwell-

ings:

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(1)УККС /ukks/ дверь (РК)

NS: uksa (NSED) A door.

(2)УККСКЭНТАШ /ukkskкntash/ порог (в доме) (ГКСРС)

NS: љielbmб (JF, p. 311)

A threshold.

(3)ШАЛЛЬТ /shall’t/ пол (РК)

NS: lбhtti (JF, p. 295)

A floor

еммьне шалльт /jeemm’ne shall’t/ земляной пол (РК) an earthern floor

мӯрршалльт /muurrshallt/ деревянный пол (ГКСРС) a wooden floor.

(4) ЭХХКАН /кkhkhkan/ окно (ГКСРС)

NS: lбse (NSED)

A window.

It may be argued that the use of a mediating language (Russian in this case) is undesirable in lexicography. However, this may be regarded as an instance of indirect translation which has played an important part in the development of many cultures. Indirect (mediated) translation is translation not from the source text (language), but from an existing translation into a third language, e.g. Icelandic ST to English to Japanese.

In connection with the indirect translation of Saami materials into English two questions may arise: (1) Why into English? (2) Why is indirect translation an option to be taken seriously?

There exist several Saami languages that are often not mutually comprehensible. The Saami people need, in addition to their own languages, a common language, if they are to maintain a common cultural space. At least initially, this role could arguably be played by English, a universal lingua franca. Many Saami people do not speak any of the Saami languages, and so need translations of Saami texts and materials anyway. This need is partly satisfied by the existing translations of Saami texts into the four majority languages of the Northern European countries where the Saami people live, but such translations can generally be read only within the individual countries in question, as the four languages are relatively little known outside the countries where they are spoken.

Indirect translation into English is not an option that should be considered where direct translation is available. However, direct translation is sometimes not available. Some originally Saami texts were recorded in languages other than Saami, e.g. in 1890, at Pazretsky Pogost near the border with Norway, K.Shchekoldin wrote down several Saami legends, traditional stories and folk tales in Russian from Saami people speaking through an interpreter. A number of Saami folk tales are known to have been originally told in Russian by Saami

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people speaking to Russian scholars in search of Saami folklore materials, e.g. in 1936 K.I. Arkhipov told Saami folk tales to researchers not only in Saami, but also in Russian. In this case, they had been, in a sense, “translated” from the source language by K.I. Arkhipov himself, which means that their Saami originals had never existed as written texts. A problem similar to indirect translation arises in the case of literary texts written by Saami authors in languages other than Saami, but reflecting their cultural identity. Such texts often contain references to Saami culture that in terms of choosing translation techniques pose the same problems as the indirect translation of texts previously translated from Saami originals.

The use of indirect translation has a long history, e.g. in the Middle Ages translations of Aristotle into Latin were often made from the existing Arabic translations, rather than from the Greek originals. As late as the 19th century, translations of texts written in languages little known in the recipient community were routinely made from their existing translations into better known languages. Even in the 20th century, Asian, African and Australian folklore was sometimes translated into Russian from collections published in the major European languages, e.g. Ursula McConnel, Myths of the Munkan, Melbourne, University Press, 1957 was published in Russian translation from the English in 1981 by the academic “Nauka” Publishers.

In the case of indirect translation it is more difficult to preserve culturally relevant information than in the case of direct translation. A way to alleviate the problem is to rely on the foreignization strategy. Indirect translation of Saami texts and lexicographic materials into English can be a way to preserve and make widely available those elements of the Saami cultural heritage that have survived in languages other than Saami. It can also create more interest in learning Saami and contribute to promoting Saami culture world-wide.

When compiling the Dictionary, entries to do with dwellings proved to be among the most difficult to elaborate both in terms of definitions and in terms of Kildin Saami – Northern Saami parallels. The principal reason seems to be connected with the authors’ lack of experience of actually living in Saami dwellings.

The plurality of the types of dwellings which are lived in at different stages of the annual cycle suggests that Saami culture may have a concept of “home” which is fundamentally different from the Russian one, especially in terms of its relative independence of a fixed locality. The spatial dimension of the Saami “home” may be related to the whole of their natural environment and to movement rather than a fixed position in space.

However, the only way to know what this view of the world really means is to actually experience the Saami way of life. Linguistics is of little help here, one would have to take up some traditional Saami activity, like reindeer herding.

Note on transliteration

The aim of the following table is to show the conventions adopted by the authors of the electronic Dictionary for the purpose of transliterating Kildin

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Saami names and cultural terms in English translation. This is not the first system of Latin-based transliteration of Kildin Saami words: the authoritative Saami-Russian Dictionary edited by R.D. Kuruch (1985) contains a section providing a Latin transliteration of all the entries which is phonologically impeccable, but, with its numerous diacritical marks, less than “user-friendly” at a time when most typing is done on the keyboard of a personal computer. It was our hope that translators from Kildin Saami would find the present system somewhat easier to use.

References

1.Российские саами. Саамы Кольского полуострова [Электронный ресурс]. Ре-

жим доступа: http://www.saami.su/biblioteka/saamskie-skazki/html?start=10 (да-

та обращения: 23.11.2015).

2.Саамско-русский словарь [Текст] / под ред. Р.Д. Куруч. – М.: Русский язык,

1985. – 568 с. – (РК).

3.Словарь саамско-русский и русско-саамский: пособие для учащихся начальной школы [Текст] / сост. Г.М. Керт. – Л.: Просвещение, 1986. – 247 с. – (ГКСРС / ГКРСС).

4.Щеколдин, К.П. Лопарские сказки, легенды и сказания, записанные в Пазрецком погосте, пограничном с Норвегией [Текст] / К.П. Щеколдин // Живая старина. – 1890. – Вып. 1. – С. 17–25.

5.Inuvialuit Sod House [Electronic resource]. URL: http://www.inuvialuitsodhouse.ca (accessed 23.11.2015).

6.Jocelyne Fernandez, M.M. Parlons lapon [Text] / M.M. Jocelyne Fernandez. –

Paris, Montréal: L’Harmattan, 1997. – 347 p. – (JF).

7.Northern Lavvu [Electronic resource]. URL: http://lavvu.com (accessed 23.11.2015).

8.Saami Linguistics [Text] / I. Toivonen, D. Nelson (eds.). – Amsterdam; Philadelphia, 2007. – 322 p.

9.Sapmi [Electronic resource]. URL: http://www.samer.se/1202 (accessed 23.11.2015).

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УДК 72

ББК 85.110

В.Н. Васильева

ФГБОУ ВО «Мурманский арктический государственный университет» г. Мурманск, Россия

ЭКОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ПРИНЦИПЫ ФОРМООБРАЗОВАНИЯ В АРХИТЕКТУРЕ

Аннотация. В статье осмысляется использование природных форм в архитектуре, а также обосновывается необходимость преобразования элементов городской среды с учетом изменений окружающей природной среды, порождаемых антропогенной деятельностью человека.

Ключевые слова. Архитектура, окружающая природа, архитектурная бионика, органическая архитектура, Hi-Tech.

V.N. Vasilieva

Murmansk Arctic State University

Murmansk, Russia

ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

OF MORPHOGENESIS IN ARCHITECTURE

Abstract. The article analyze the use of natural forms in architecture, as well as the necessity of transformation of elements of the urban environment with the changes of environment caused by anthropogenic activities of man.

Key words. Аrchitecture, surrounding nature, architectural bionics, organic architecture, Hi-Tech.

Окружающую человека природу не случайно называют «Домом» человечества. Она не только является источником и условием жизни людей, но и основой всех форм человеческой деятельности. На протяжении всех этапов своей истории человек использовал в процессе своей архи- тектурно-строительной деятельности конструктивные формы, возникшие в природе, приспособленные к ее условиям и разного рода внешним воздействиям. Человек сознательно или интуитивно подражал сооружениям бобров и термитов, гнездам птиц и пчелиным сотам. Колонны, использовавшиеся в египетских, греческих и готических храмах тоже являются архитектурно-строительными воплощениями стволов деревьев. Многие, в том числе и современные, здания стадионов, цирков, концертных залов по своим архитектурным формам сходны с увеличенными в сотни раз морскими раковинами.

Подражая в процессе создания архитектурных сооружений природным формам, человек стремился осмыслить закономерности их использо-

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вания. Такие творцы эпохи Возрождения, как Леон Альберти, Леонардо да Винчи, Филиппо Брунеллески, как и мыслители других эпох, много работали над проблемой творческого использования в архитектуре принципов формообразования природы.

Развитие естествознания в XIX и XX веках наряду с использованием

встроительстве стали, железобетона, стекла, стимулировали дальнейшее использование природных форм в архитектуре, что обусловило систематическое и целенаправленное изучение законов и принципов естественного формообразования применительно к архитектуре в рамках архитектурной бионики.

Архитектурная бионика связана с работами видных архитекторов XX века (Гауди, Земпера, Фельдега, Бауэра, Зельфельда, Лебедева, Райта и др.).

Врамках архитектурной бионики сформировалась «органическая архитектура», в соответствии с идеями которой, архитектура должна развиваться целостно, удовлетворяя жизненные функции человека, а не наоборот. Согласно Ф.Л. Райту, органическая архитектура должна устанавливать связи архитектурных форм с местным ландшафтом, использовать местные строительные материалы с целью сохранения национального колорита архитектурных сооружений.

Архитектурная бионика, будучи исторически закономерным этапом

вэволюции специфической связи архитектуры и живой природы, обусловила появление форм, воспроизводящих структуры живой природы (покрытие большого зала Туринской выставки П.Л. Нерви, вантовые и палаточные сооружения О. Фрай и др.).

Использование закономерностей формообразования живой природы стало одним из направлений архитектуры Hi-Tech, перспективы развития которого связаны:

со строительством энергосберегающих зданий (« пассивных домов»), в которых эксплуатируется парниковый эффект, в результате чего солнечная энергия превращается в тепло1;

с использованием мобильных сооружений, быстровозводимых зданий2;

с созданием мобильных рабочих мест3;

1 Пассивные дома, обеспечивающие себя теплом, в которых нет необходимости в постройке дорогого и занимающего много места центрального отопления, строятся в США и Германии.

2 Принципы динамической адаптации зданий и сооружений широко используются в рекламе, торговле, проектировании архитектурной среды в экстремальных условиях.

3Примером может служить «всемирный театр труда» (Жан Нувель) в Ганновере, сценография которого была связана с демонстрацией сотнями актеров, двигавшихся на

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