Aktualnye_problemy_sovremennoy_lingvistiki_201

defined as “impersonal adverbs”)4. As Zgusta says: «If there is no “categorical equivalence” of the “parts of speech” observable, the lexicographer has to proceed on the basis of the equivalence of the lexical meaning only5».

It is indeed in this respect, given the impossibility to find a perfect lexical equivalent in Italian, considering we are dealing with forms that reflect a more abstract, generic, we would say conceptual meaning (an “idea of…”, “a feeling of…”), that the question of “translatability” becomes of primary importance. How to cope with this issue? Precisely in relation to this, examples seem equally to play a crucial role in semantic disambiguation; especially insofar as they are appropriate with the relevant equivalent, whether with reference to general or personal use.

If, on the one hand, different processing criteria for the same entries are observable through cross-comparison among different bilingual dictionaries (Russian-Italian sections)6, on the other hand a certain heterogeneity in the treatment of these forms is recorded even within the

same dictionary, just, for example, going through a few entries taken from Mайзель -Скворцова 19777:

грустно8 2. сказ.безл.9 (Д) è triste10; мне стало ~ mi sentíi triste11.

structure of the entry: (Russian) ENTRY (Italian) EQUIVALENT that seems more suitable for general use; EXAMPLE that refers to personal use;

жарко12 2. сказ.безл.: в комнате было ~ nella stanza faceva molto caldo13; мне ~ ho [sento] caldo, mi fa caldo14;◊ небу ~ будет [станет] non se lo scorderanno mai più; мне от этого ни ~нихолодно non mi fa né caldo né freddo.

structure of the entry: (Russian) ENTRY (Italian) NO EQUIVALENT; EXAMPLES of both general and personal use; PHRASEOLOGY;

сухо15 3. сказ.безл. essere asciutto16; в поле уже ~ i campi sono già asciutti17.

structure of the entry: (Russian) ENTRY (Italian) EQUIVALENT that seems suitable for both general and personal use; EXAMPLE that refers to general use.

The single lexicographical entries show a lack of uniformity as far as their treatment is concerned, although it happens that they all, actually expressing “condition”, belong to a particular category of words for which more standardized processing criteria might be expected.

4These predicatives in -o are indeed generally reproduced, in Italian, through a nominal construction.

5Zgusta, 1971:314.

6This could depend on the specific lexicographer’s choices.

10Translation: “it’s sad”. This represents the equivalent typology generally adopted for most of the cases, which sees the auxiliary of the verb “to be” at the third person, in union with the name/adjective that indicates the state in question.

11Translation: “I was sad”.

12Mайзель -Скворцова, 1977:197.

13Translation: “it was hot in the room”.

14Translation: “I’m warm”.

15Mайзель -Скворцова, 1977:823.

16Translation: “to be dry”. It is curious to note how in this case the equivalent typology differs from the one generally adopted for most of the cases (see footnote 9). Here the lexicographer opts for a somehow more generic equivalent, by inserting the infinitive construction.

17Translation: “the fields are already dry”.

References

4.ZGUSTA L., Manual of Lexicography, Praga, Academia Publishing House of the Czechoslovak Akademy of Sciences 1971.

Daniela Cristina Alves Vrasinec

University Camilo Castelo Branco São Paulo, Brazil

THE RESILIENCE OF LATIN

Latin is the language of ancient Rome, whose empire covered most of Europe around the beginning of the first millennium, and particularly the period of the Roman Empire's strongest dominance, c.300BC-300AD.

Having become a little local language in central western Italy (as was towards the end of the first millennium, and which became Rome) Latin simply grew and spread with the awesome development and power of Roman Empire, prior to which, and without which, Latin was was and would likely have remained, a minority language, and might not have survived at all.

Currently Latin is regarded as a 'dead' language because it is not used as a main language in day-to-day communications and life. Latin however remains very much alive as a highly significant language, especially in technical references.

For a 'dead' language, the resilience of Latin is significant. Its resilience would be extraordinary were Latin a living language. Latin is still taught to millions of students around the world, and will continue to be for a very long time to come.

Some of Latin terminology is very common in general speech and written communications; other Latin terms are more rarely used, in specialized situations, notably for example in law, science, and education.

Fundamentally this is because Latin is the main and most recent root language for many major world languages. Also, for centuries, in fact for two millennia, Latin has been the main language of scholarship and academia.

More specifically, Latin has for many centuries been used widely in law. Law is crucial to governance and leadership, society and civilization, diplomacy and international relations, business, trade, and commerce, finance, the military, and therefore so is Latin.

Latin has for many centuries been the language of the Christian religion, notably of Roman Catholicism.

Latin has for many centuries been a crucial language for all of the sciences, therefore it has contributed also to innovation, invention, exploration, transport, discovery, medicine, health, anatomy, every human and animal condition, and life itself.

Particularly related to the above, Latin terminology remains the underpinning language of living things and the biological taxonomy which organizes our understanding of every living thing on the planet.

Latin is obviously vital for the operation of many fundamental professions and disciplines, and for the rest of us, Latin remains fascinating and helpful in the understanding of our day-to- day language, especially the Latin expressions and terminology which survive and arise in business, technical definitions, law, education, grammar, and science, etc.

Latin, primarily via French, had a significant influence on the development of the English language. The conventional English alphabet (along with those of the Romance languages) is known as the Latinate alphabet, because its origins are in ancient Latin.

Latin phrases and words have entered (directly and unchanged) the English language, and many other languages too - and the words, rules and structures of Latin have determined - and continue to determine - the way that new words are created.

Latin terminology, expressions and phrases feature widely in the English language. The modern meanings and usage, while evolved and adapted, mostly still generally reflect the original literal translations.

Here are just a few examples of Latin terms which are used very widely in English, including some extremely common words and abbreviations:

ad hoc alma mater alter ego

a priori / a posteriori in vitro

e.g. (exempli gratia) etc. (et cetera )

i.e. (id est)

N.B. (nota bene)

The list of Latin terms, including common phrases, and specialized, yet fascinating terminology could be found in my full paper along with translation and thorough explanation of each term in English.

Olabinjo Yewande, Fadairo, O. Yusuf

University of Lagos, Nigeria

LANGUAGE AS A TOOL FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT:

A CASE STUDY OF MANDARIN AND YORÙBÁ

In the world of today, for a country to thrive, it must possess the ability to maintain an equilibrium level potential in its political, military, science, technological and economic development. However, it has been observed that the sustenance of these potentials in a nation does not elude the power of the language of that nation. Thus, it can be said that no nation grows beyond the capacity of its language. In this paper, we focus on the comparison between Yorùbá (a Kwa language of the South-western Nigeria) and Mandarin [a Sino-Tibetan language of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)] in terms of strategies employed by both languages to localize scientific and technological terms to not only promote technological advancement but also to enable creative productivity in the countries. It is shown that while the developmental impact of Mandarin on PRC is global, the effect of Yorùbá on Nigeria is sparse. However, judging from the effectiveness of both language communities and the maturity of the languages, it is shown that the word formation processes used in bringing in new words to both languages are capable of bringing about sustainable growth to scientific and technological advancement of their respective countries.

Прикладные вопросы лингвистики

транслируемаячерезканалыпопулярнкультурыСМИ,спойсобствовалаукоренению «американскоймечты»всознанииреципиентовзапределамиСША.

•Орфография – сводправил,покотострписьменностьоитсяымязыка,их конкретнаярепрезентация[8; p. 263 -264].

Таккакфактвсеписьменческидыможнобъединитьвдвебольшиестей категории – фонологическлогографические,взарубежной лингвистике рассматриваютсяспотраженисобыпроизнна сьмеодляшениялькоязыков фонологическимивидамиписьменности,томчислеалфавитн.стемыОрфографиие

алфавитныхсистемили(алфавитныеорфографии[5;могутpкак.отражать167])устную формуязы,таибыкотанееотличнойь.Взависимостиреализацииданногоусловия принятоделитьорфографическиесистемывосноввида2 по(нт.. рфографическойм глубине[6;Однакоpнетобщего. 145])мненияиспользованию. терминологии:

•shallow \ deep (non-shallow) [5; p.169]

•regular \ irregular [8; p. 264]

•phonologisch \ semantisch [7; p. 11]

Несмотрянатакоераздел,среучедсихонпориенединстваыхпоэтому

5.Coulmas F. The Writing Systems of the World. – Oxford [u.a.] : Blackwell, 1997. – IX, 302 p.

6.Katz L., Frost R. The Reading Process Different for Different Orthographies: The Orthographic Depth Hypothesis // Haskins Laboratories Status Report on Speech Research. / Fouler Carol A., (ed.) – New Haven, Connecticut: Haskins Laboratories, 1992. – p. 147-160.

7.Nerius D. On the definition and differentiation of the principles of orthography // New Trends in Graphemics and Orthography. / Augst, Gerhard (ed.) – Berlin, New York: de Gruyter, 1986 – p.11–24.

8.Scheerer E. Orthography and lexical access // New Trends in Graphemics and Orthography. / Augst, Gerhard (ed.) – Berlin, New York: de Gruyter, 1986. – p. 262–286.

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длявторогокласса:

‒Уколичествоазатьбукванглийскогоалфавита?

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‒выбратьизспискаслово,котороместьзвукж][ или([i:][ei]) (jam, meet, wait, kangaroo, knee);

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Литература

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